LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


A     GUIDE 

TO  THE   STUDY  OF 

CHURCH      HISTORY 


BY 

W.  J.  McGLOTHLIN,  Ph.  D.  (Berlin),  D.  D., 

Professor  of 
Church  History 

in  the 

Southern  Baptist  Theological  Seminary 
Louisville,  Ky. 


1908 

BAPTIST  WORLD  PUBLISHING  CO. 
Louisville,  Ky.,  U.  S.  A. 


Copyright  1908 

by 
BAPTIST  WORLD  PUBLISHING  CO. 


PREFACE. 

As  the  title  indicates,  this  volume  is  intended  to  be  a 
guide  to  students.  It  is  not  designed  to  take  the  place 
of  larger  works  or  render  lecturing  unnecessary,  but 
to  be  a  guide  to  the  best  known  manuals  and  a  basis 
for  lecturing.  The  effort  has  been  made  to  present 
the  essentials  of  church  history  in  a  form  so  compact 
as  to  appeal  to  the  eye  and  be  easily  remembered,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  direct  the  student  to  wider  reading 
on  the  various  subjects.  For  this  purpose,  four  of  the 
best  known  manuals,  representing  different  confession- 
al view-points,  those  of  Newman  (Baptist),  Hurst 
(Methodist),  Kurtz  (Lutheran)  and  Alzog  (Catho- 
lic), have  been  selected  for  constant  reference,  with 
occasional  references  to  Schaff,  Moeller  and  other 
works.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  refer  to  a  wide 
range  of  works.  The  student  who  is  passing  through 
the  vast  field  of  Church  History  for  the  first  time  can 
find  enough  to  do  with  the  references  given.  As  he 
advances  he  can  easily  enlarge  his  bibliography.  In 
order  to  secure  brevity  there  have  been  frequent  abbre- 
viations of  words  and  condensations  of  sentences,  but 
it  is  believed  that  no  obscurity  has  resulted.  The  needs 
of  students  in  theological  seminaries  have  been  steadily 
in  mind,  but  it  is  hoped  that  others  may  find  the  work 
of  value. 

W.  J.  M. 


9.0fil77 


ABBREVIATIONS. 

A. — Alzog's  Universal  Church  History. 

A.  N.  F. — Ante-Nicene  Fathers. 

C.  C. — SchafFs  Creeds  of  Christendom. 

Henderson. — Henderson     Historical     Documents     of     the 

Middle  Ages. 

H. — Hurst's  History  of  the  Christian  Church. 
K. — Kurtz's  Church  History. 
M. — Moeller's  Church  History. 
N. — Newman's  Manual  of  Church  History. 
S.— SchafFs  Church  History. 
Underhill. — Underhill's  Baptist  Confessions  of  Faith. 


A  GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY   OF  CHURCH 
HISTORY. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Historic  Christianity  is  the  resultant  of  the  gospel 
acting  on  the  world  of  men.  Both  the  gospel  and  the 
world  into  which  it  came  must  be  studied  as  a  prelimi- 
nary to  church  history. 

I.     THE  GOSPEL. 

The  gospel  consisted  ( 1 )  of  the  teachings  and  doings 
— earthly  life — of  Jesus;  (2)  Jesus  himself,  including 
His  death,  resurrection  and  ascension;  (3)  interpre- 
tations of  Jesus;  (a)  by  apostles  who  knew  Him;  (b) 
by  Paul  and  others. 

II.     THE  WORLD  INTO  WHICH  THE  GOSPEL  FIRST 
CAME. 

References:  N.  i.  20-64;  H.  i.  61-86;  K.  Sees.  6-11;  A.  i. 
62-135;  S.  i.  55-89. 

Christianity  was  born  in  the  Roman  Empire,  and 
scarcely  passed  beyond  its  boundaries  for  five  hundred 
years. 

1.  EMPIRE'S  LOCATION  AND  BOUNDARIES;  surround- 
ing the  Mediterranean  Sea.     Rest  of  the  world  little 
known  and  without  influence  on  the  West.     Popula- 
tion c.  100,000,000. 

2.  ITS  GOVERNMENT.     By  Romans.     (1)  Central — 
by  Emperor  and  Senate;  (2)  Provincial — by  appointed 


2  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

governors;  (3)  Municipal.  It  was  firm  and  orderly, 
with  much  local  freedom ;  brought  all  races  under  law, 
preserved  order,  prevented  petty  internicine  strifes, 
suppressed  robbery,  built  good  roads,  kept  open  com- 
munications by  sea  and  land  between  all  parts  of  the 
Empire.  All  offices  below  the  Senate  were  appointive, 
its  judges,  in  the  main,  just,  its  law  faithfully  admin- 
istered. 

3.  ITS    RACES   AND   THEIR   DISTRIBUTION.      Many 
peoples  intermingled  and  greatly  mixed.    (1)  Latins — 
in  Italy,  North  Africa,  Spain  and  Gaul,  which  were 
largely  Latinized.     (Compare  their  languages.)     The 
military  and  governing  classes  everywhere  were  Ro- 
mans; Latin  the  official  language.     (2)    Greeks — In 
Greece  and  its  islands,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  N.  and  E. 
Palestine,  Egypt,  the  coasts  of   Italy,   Sicily,   Rome, 
S.  E.  Gaul,  and  elsewhere.     (3)  Jews — (a)  Palestine; 
(b)  the  Dispersion,  mostly  commercial  people  in  the 
cities  of  Egypt,  Cyprus,  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  Mace- 
donia, in  Rome,  Spain,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Persia  and 
further  East.      (4)    Other  Semites — (a)    Syrians   in 
Syria  and  Mesopotamia;   (b)   Arabs  in  Arabia;   (c) 
Phoenicians  in  Phoenicia  and  North  Africa;  (5)  other 
native  populations — (a)  Celts  in  Gaul,  British  Islands 
and  Galatia;  (b)  Copts  in  Egypt;  (c)  Berbers  in  North 
Africa;  (d)  various  native  peoples  in  Asia  Minor  and 
Southeast  Europe.    Surrounding  the  Empire  were  the 
Germans  on  the  north,  still  barbarous ;  on  the  east  the 
Persians,  Parthians,  Scythians;  on  the  south  various 
desert  tribes  in  Asia  and  Africa. 

4.  SOCIAL  AND  ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS.     (1)  Many 
slaves,  without  legal  rights,  and  often  cruelly  treated ; 
(2)  woman  was  debased,  with  few  rights,  often  im- 


of  Church  History.  3 

moral;  children  were  poorly  educated  and  little  re- 
garded; (3)  there  were  extremes  of  wealth  and  pov- 
erty (200,000  mendicants  in  Rome  alone). 

5.  CULTURE.  The  masses  everywhere  ignorant;  no 
system  of  public  schools;  education  left  largely  to 
slaves;  books  few  and  costly;  education  was  literary, 
rhetorical,  artificial.  Sources  of  culture  were  various : 
( 1 )  That  of  ancient  Egypt,  Babylonia  and  Assyria  had 
largely  perished.  Only  the  ruins  of  their  architecture 
and  sculpture  remain.  (2)  The  native  populations  had 
never  possessed  much  culture.  (3)  The  culture  of 
Persia  had  affected  the  Empire  little,  that  of  India  and 
of  China  perhaps  not  at  all.  (4)  The  golden  age  of 
Greece  was  past,  but  the  language  had  been  widely  dif- 
fused by  commerce,  colonization  and  war  (Alexander), 
and  was  the  chief  vehicle  of  culture  for  the  world. 
The  elements  of  Greek  culture  were :  (a)  A  beautiful, 
flexible  and  expressive  language,  widely  distributed, 
(b)  An  extensive  literature,  which  still  serves  as  mod- 
els in  dramatic,  lyric  and  epic  poetry,  in  oratory  and  in 
history,  (c)  Art,  which  still  exerts  influence  on  sculp- 
ture and  architecture  (Doric,  Ionic  and  Corinthian), 
(d)  Philosophy,  which  has  deeply  affected  theology 
and  philosophy  to  the  present  time.  Socrates  (469- 
399),  Plato  (427-347),  Aristotle  (384-322);  Stoic 
School  founded  by  Zeno  (340-260)  ;  Epicurean  School 
founded  by  Epicurus  (342-270).  (5)  Romans,  con- 
tributed law,  stable  government,  internal  order,  good 
roads,  open  seas.  Their  literature  and  philosophy  were 
dependent  upon  Greek  models,  but  Latin  ultimately  be- 
came the  language  of  theology  and  learning  for  the 
Western  world,  and  held  that  position  till  recently. 
(6)  Jews  can  not  be  said  to  have  contributed  anything 


4  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

of  importance  to  culture.     Their  contribution  was  in 
the  realm  of  religion  and  morals. 

6.  RELIGION.    All  religions  were  national;  i.  e.,  not 
personal  or  universal.     All,  except  Judaism,  polythe- 
istic, with  male  and  female  divinities ;  only  in  Judaism 
was  there  union  of  morals  and  religion,  the  gods  being 
immoral.    All  had  sacrifices,  priesthood,  temples,  more 
or  less  ritual,  but  little  or  no  religious  instruction. 
Roman    conquests    and    commercial    intercourse    had 
largely  broken  down  religious  prejudices  by  bringing 
all  religions  into  contact  with  one  another.     ( 1 )  Greek 
religion.    The  gods  were  personifications  of  the  pow- 
ers of  nature  resting  on  a  semi-pantheistic  basis ;  aes- 
thetic, intellectual,  but  morally  feeble.     (2)  Roman  re- 
ligion.    The  gods  were  personifications  of  the  func- 
tions of  society,  the  reproduction  of  a  Roman  house- 
hold.    State  ceremonies,  emperor  worship.     (3)  Jew- 
ish religion,     (a)  One  true  and  living  God,  absolutely 
holy,  the  creator  of  all  things ;  monotheism,     (b)  High 
moral  precepts  with  religious  sanction,     (c)  Hope  of 
a  Messiah ;  golden  age  in  the  future ;  one  temple,  a 
priesthood,  ritual;  synagogues  for  non-sacrificial  wor- 
ship and  instruction.    Jewish  parties  in  Palestine  were 
Pharisees,  Sadducees,  Essenes,  Samaritans.     (4)  Syri- 
an, Egyptian,  and  other  religions  were  widely  distrib- 
uted, often  grossly  immoral,  rarely  elevating.     Wor- 
ship of  Cybele,  Isis,  Mithra,  etc.,  spread  over  the  Em- 
pire.   The  last  century  B.  C.  was  an  age  of  skepticism, 
but  through  efforts  of  Augustus  and  others,  faith  in 
the  fundamentals  of  religion  was  reviving  during  the 
first  Christian  century. 

7.  MORALS.     Political  life  was  debased.     Provincial 
governors  usually  became  rich  by  graft  and  oppression. 


of  Church  History.  5 

The  emperor,  often  made  by  the  army  and  controlled 
by  favorites,  slaves  or  concubines,  was  supreme;  the 
Senate  and  other  subordinate  officials  subservient,  ve- 
nal, cringing.  Amusements — gladiatorial  shows,  races, 
the  theatre — were  idolatrous  and  morally  degrading. 
Little  or  nothing  elevating.  The  army  was  efficient, 
but  cruel.  War  almost  constant.  Slavery  was  exten- 
sive and  corrupting.  Literature  was  often  debased; 
morals  had  little  religious  sanction.  There  was  bound- 
less sexual  immorality,  unnatural  vices,  low  regard  for 
children;  abortion  frequent,  exposure  and  murder  of 
children  allowed;  theft,  graft,  oppression,  gambling 
and  drunkenness  were  common. 


A  Guide  to  the  Study 


BOOK  I 

APOSTOLIC    ERA,     1-100    A.    D.    PLANTING 
CHRISTIANITY  IN  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

References:    N.  i.  67-143;  H.  i.  87-159;  K.  Sees.  12-18; 
A.  i.  136-235. 

I.     EXTERNAL  HISTORY. 

1.  POLITICAL  HISTORY.    The  Empire  engaged  in  re- 
pressing internal  disorders  and  establishing  its  borders. 
Acquisition  of  England,  A.  D.  44.     Character  of  the 
emperors  bad.    Jewish  rebellion,  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem A.  D.  70  (Josephus,  Jewish  Wars). 

2.  PLANTING  AND  SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY.     K. 
Sees.  13-16,  A.  i.  138-94.     (1)  Extent:     (a)  Work  of 
Jesus  and  His  disciples  confined  to  Palestine  north  of 
Jerusalem,  fairly  successful  among  masses,  but  rejected 
by  upper  classes,   (b)  To  Death  of  Stephen.  Pentecost, 
(c)  After  death  of  Stephen — among  Jews  of  Palestine, 
Samaritans,  the  Dispersion,  Gentiles  (Antioch)  ;  work 
of  Peter,  the  rest  of  the  twelve ;  of  Paul ;  of  nameless 
missionaries.       (2)     Missionary    methods.       Travel, 
preaching,  miracles,  letters.   (3)  Message:  (a)  to  Jews, 
(b)  to  Gentiles.    (4)  Means  of  support.    (5)  Success; 
number,  size,  location  and  character  of  the  churches; 
nationality,  social  and  intellectual  standing  and  eco- 
nomic condition  of  the  Christians.    (6)  Opposition  and 
persecution;  motives,  methods,  extent,     (a)  By  Jews, 
Sadducees,  Pharisees,  the  Dispersion;  (b)  by  Gentiles; 
mobs,  provincial  governments,  imperial  government; 
by  Nero  (64),  by  Domitian  (96),  both  at  Rome  only. 


of  Church  History.  7 

II.    THE  CHURCH. 

Three  meanings  of  the  word  church'.  ( 1 )  All  Chris- 
tians ;  (2)  all  Christians  in  a  city  or  other  geographical 
unit;  (3)  Christians  worshiping  in  one  place.  No  gen- 
eral organization  as  association,  convention,  national 
or  denominational  church.  A  measure  of  unity  and 
uniformity  was  preserved  by  correspondence  and*  by 
traveling  missionaries  (Paul). 

1.  ITS  MEMBERS.     Baptized  believers,  walking  or- 
derly. 

2.  OFFICERS.    Bishops  (elders)  and  deacons,  both  in 
plural.    Qualifications,  selection,  ordination  and  duties 
of  each. 

Other  officers  of  Christianity  at  large  regarded  as 
divinely  appointed,  not  bound  to  one  church,  are  apos- 
tles, prophets,  teachers  and  evangelists.  Duties  of 
each. 

3.  POLITY.     Democratic  self  government  under  the 
oversight 'of  the  apostles. 

4.  ORDINANCES.     (1)    Baptism — immersion    (possi- 
bly trine)  of  a  believer  in  water,  in  the  name  of  the 
trinity,  by  a  baptized  believer,  as  the  sign  of  a  renewed 
life,   as    soon   after   conversion   as   convenient.      (2) 
Lord's  table — eating  of  bread  and  drinking  of  wine  by 
baptized  believers  as  a  memorial  of  Christ's  suffering, 
probably  every  Lord's  day ;  probably  connected  with  a 
feast. 

III.     DOCTRINES. 

Sources  of  doctrine  were  the  Old  Testament  (for 
Gentile  Christians  the  Septuagint,  containing  the 
Apocrypha),  for  a  century  and  more  the  only  Chris- 


8  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

tian  Bible.  Traditions  of  Jesus  and  interpretations  of 
Jesus  by  Paul  and  others.  No  systematic  theology  in 
this  period.  Doctrine  is  practical ;  ( 1 )  unity,  holiness, 
justice,  love  and  mercy  of  God.  Sinfulness  and  lost 
condition  of  man;  (3)  redemption  of  sinners  by  Jesus 
Christ,  son  of  man  and  Son  of  God ;  the  facts  of  His 
life,  death,  burial,  resurrection  and  ascension.  (4) 
Salvation  by  faith  in  Him.  (5)  Speedy  return  of 
Christ ;  final  resurrection  of  all ;  eternal  life  and  eternal 
punishment. 

Great  controversy  between  Jewish  and  Gentile  Chris- 
tians over  the  relation  of  the  Jewish  law  to  salvation ; 
many  of  the  former  claimed  that  circumcision  and  the 
observance  of  the  law  were  necessary,  while  the  latter, 
under  leadership  of  Paul,  asserted  that  salvation  was 
by  faith,  apart  from  the  law,  claiming  freedom  from 
ceremonial  law  for  Gentile  Christians.  By  the  great 
conference  at  Jerusalem,  A.  D.  51  (Acts  15),  a  settle- 
ment was  reached  fairly  satisfactory  to  both  parties. 
1.  Things  required  were  abstention  from  (a)  blood, 

(b)  things  strangled,    (c)   things  sacrificed  to  idols, 
(d)  fornication.    2.  Things  not  required :    (a)  Observ- 
ance of  Jewish  sacred  seasons   (passover,  Pentecost, 
new  moon,  Sab*bath,  etc.),   (b)  offering  of  sacrifices, 

(c)  priesthood,  (d)  temple  worship,  support,  etc.,  (e) 
distinction  in  foods,   (f)  circumcision. 

This  settlement  was  the  formal  and  general  recogni- 
tion of  the  fact  that  Christianity  had  broken  through 
the  walls  of  Judaism.  It  was  a  temporary  compromise, 
some  of  whose  requirements  Paul  did  not  observe,  nor 
have  they  been  regarded  as  binding  by  the  church  since. 

Some  of  the  errors  within  the  Christian  fold  were : 
denial  of  the  divinity  of  Christ,  of  His  humanity,  of 


of  Church  History.  9 

the  resurrection;  the  worship  of  angels  and  various 
philosophical  speculations  detracting  from  the  exalta- 
tion of  Christ.  Jesus  was  regarded  as  the  Christ,  serv- 
ant of  God,  the  pre-existent  maker  of  all  things ;  He  in 
whom  all  things  consist,  the  Savior,  the  Redeemer  and 
Judge  of  mankind,  the  slain  but  eternally  reigning 
Lamb,  distinct  from  God,  but  finally,  in  John's  Gospel, 
identified  with  God. 

IV.     WORSHIP. 

1.  PLACE.     Temple,     synagogue,     private     houses, 
school  buildings.     No  distinctive  church  buildings  in 
this  period. 

2.  TIME.     Sabbath,  first  day  (Lord's  day),  or  both. 
Often  at  night.     Sacred  seasons,  probably;  passover 
(later  called  Easter),  and  Pentecost,  both  with  Chris- 
tian (not  Jewish)  meaning. 

3.  ELEMENTS.     Informal,  democratic,  not  liturgical, 
(a)  Singing,  Psalms  from  the  Old  Testament,  but  also 
hymns  and  spiritual  songs  of  their  own  composition, 
sung  by  individuals.     No  instrument,     (b)   Reading 
from  Old  Testament ;  incidents  and  teachings  from  the 
life  and  work  of  Jesus,     (c)  Exhortation,  admonition, 
instruction,  prophesying,  speaking  with  tongues,  etc. 
(d)   Extempore  prayers  in  which  women  sometimes 
led.     (e)  Celebration  of  the  Lord's  supper. 

V.     CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

(Dobschutz,  "Christian  Life  in  Primitive  Church.") 
1.  MORALS  often  low  (I.  Cor.  and  Rev.).     Gentile 
converts  ignorant  of  the  elements  of  morals.     Exclu- 
sion from  church  fellowship  and  all  social  intercourse 
was  the  penalty  for  moral  lapses. 


10  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

2.  SLAVERY,  modified  but  not  forbidden.     No  word 
of  emancipation.    Slaves  and  masters  in  same  church. 

3.  WOMEN  take  prominent  part  in  Christian  work 
and  worship.    Not  given  official  position  or  allowed  to 
teach.    Deaconesses. 

4.  PROPERTY  held  by  Christians.     Voluntary  com- 
munism at  Jerusalem  for  brief  period,  not  elsewhere; 
no  involuntary  communism. 

5.  CHARITIES  extensive  (collection  for  poor  at  Jeru- 
salem).   Care  of  widows,  orphans,  poor,  travelers  per- 
secuted, etc.     Support  of  the  ministry. 

6.  CHRISTIANS  withdrew  largely  from  heathen  so- 
ciety, theatres,  temples,  festivals,  etc. 

7.  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT  was  obeyed  and  respected  as 
ordained  of  God. 

VI.     CHRISTIAN  LITERATURE. 

Written  in  Greek,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
Matthew,  largely,  if  not  wholly,  by  Christians  of  Jew- 
ish origin.  Some  of  the  literature  of  this  period  has 
been  lost.  All  that  has  been  preserved  is  found  in  N. 
T. ;  not  marked  by  great  literary  finish.  Four  kinds : 
(1)  Brief  fragmentary  accounts  of  the  life  and  teach- 
ings of  Jesus,  Gospels.  (2)  Letters  to  individuals, 
churches,  groups  of  churches  called  forth  by  special 
circumstances,  but  usually  intended  for  a  more  or  less 
general  circulation;  e.  g.,  Eph.  and  Col.  (3)  One 
brief,  fragmentary  history,  largely  devoted  to  the  do- 
ings of  Paul,  Acts.  It  gives  no  adequate  conception  of 
the  spread  of  Christianity  as  a  whole.  (4)  Apocalyp- 
tic literature,  Rev. 

These  books  were  not  gathered  into  one  volume  until 
later.  They  were  not  part  of  a  sacred  book,  a  bible, 
but  each  had  only  its  own  authority. 


of  Church  History.  11 


BOOK  II 

HISTORY  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CHURCH, 
100  A.  D.  TO  c.  600  A.  D. 

First  Period  100-323  A.  D.  Christianity  in  the 
heathen  Roman  Empire,  finally  triumphant. 

I.     EXTERNAL  HISTORY. 

References:  N.  i.  147-72;  H.  i.  149-79;  K.  Sees.  19-22;  A. 
i  236-86.  Ramsay,  "The  Church  in  the  Roman  Empire ;"  Ad- 
dis, "Christianity  in  the  Roman  Empire;"  Uhlhorn,  "Conflict 
of  Christianity  with  Heathenism;"  Harnack,  "The  Expansion 
of  Christianity;"  Merivale,  "History  of  the  Romans  under 
the  Empire;"  Bigg,  "The  Church's  Task  under  the  Roman 
Empire." 

1.     POLITICAL,  SOCIAL,  RELIGIOUS  AND  EDUCATIONAL 
CONDITIONS. 

(1)  Political.  Conditions,  on  the  whole,  happy 
under  "the  five  good  emperors"  (96-180).  Under  Tra- 
jan the  Empire  reached  its  widest  extent.  Dacia,  Ar- 
menia, Mesopotamia  and  Assyria  made  Roman  provin- 
ces; last  three  "given  up  by  Hadrian.  Revolt  of  the 
Jews,  132-5,  under  Barcocheba.  Peace  under  Pius 
and  under  Marcus  Aurelius.  Asiatic  plague.  Commo- 
dus  begins  the  decline.  Various  border  wars  with  Par- 
thians  and  other  barbarians. 

From  192  to  284  is  the  period  of  transition  to  abso- 
lute monarchy.  Emperors  elected  by  the  army ;  twenty- 
one  out  of  twenty-five  met  violent  deaths,  ten  of  whom 
were  assassinated.  Struggle  in  East  with  the  new  Per- 


12  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

sian  Empire,  which  rose  about  226;  in  the  West  with 
German  tribes,  which  began  to  make  incursions  into 
the  Empire  about  250.  Goths  along  the  Danube,  Franks 
in  Gaul  and  Spain,  Alemani  in  upper  Italy.  About  260, 
Romans  seriously  defeated  by  new  Persians  in  the 
East.  Empire,  seemingly  on  point  of  dissolution,  is 
restored  by  Aurelian,  who  makes  peace  with  Goths  by 
giving  up  Dacia,  defeats  his  enemies  in  Syria  and  re- 
conquers Egypt. 

In  order  to  meet  the  increasing  dangers  and  difficul- 
ties on  the  German  and  Syrian  borders,  Diocletian  re- 
organized the  entire  government,  making  two  capitals, 
Milan  and  Nicomedia,  two  emperors  and  two  Caesars, 
increasing  the  number  and  reducing  the  size  of  the 
provinces,  making  the  empire  an  Oriental  despotism 
with  unbearable  taxes.  His  resignation  in  305,  fol- 
lowed by  chaos  and  civil  war  until  Constantine  became 
sole  ruler  in  323. 

(2)  Social.     The  period  was  marked  by  the  grad- 
ual rise  of  the  provincials ;  most  of  the  emperors  were 
from  the  provinces ;  Caracalla  bestowed  Roman  citi- 
zenship upon  all  freemen  within  the  empire.    Frequent 
civil  and  foreign  wars  decimated  and  corrupted  the 
people.     Germans  more  and  more  introduced  them- 
selves into  the  provinces,  the  army  and  governmental 
positions.     Italy  and  the  old  Roman  race  largely  lost 
their  significance.    Slavery,  immorality,  war  and  taxa- 
tion were  ruining  agriculture,  reducing  population,  de- 
stroying the  state,  corrupting  social,  civil  and  family 
life. 

(3)  Religious.    There  was  a  revival  of  the  Roman 
religion ;  emperor  worship  was  made  universally  oblig- 
atory ;  many  cults  introduced  from  the  East,  especially 


of  Church  History.  13 

that  of  Isis  from  Egypt  and  Mithra  from  Persia. 
These  were  much  warmer  and  more  personal  than  the 
Roman  faith.  Extensive  syncretism  in  first  half  of  the 
third  century. 

Neo-Platonism.  The  revival  of  Platonism  (Neo- 
Platonism)  was  the  significant  movement  in  the  realm 
of  thought  (Plotinus  d.  270,  Porphyry  d.  305).  It 
sought  to  be  the  religion  of  the  cultured  heathen,  and 
was  intensely  hostile  to  Christianity.  It  was  the  last 
effort  of  non-Christian  philosophy. 

(4)  Education.  Education  was  more  generally  dif- 
fused than  in  former  period ;  was  taken  under  patron- 
age of  the  state,  which  controlled  and  supported  the 
schools ;  it  consisted  almost  exclusively  of  the  study  of 
grammar,  rhetoric  and  literature,  was  artificial  and 
showy,  with  little  beneficial  effect  on  character. 

2.     SPREAD  OF  CHRISTIANITY — MISSIONS. 

References:  N.  i.  291f ;  H.  i.  397-409;  K.  Sec.  21 ;  S.  ii.  14- 
30;  A.  i.  236-56. 

(1)  Among  the  Jews,  Christianity  made  no  further 
progress.     The   calamities   that  befell  them,   70-135, 
made  them  wholly  inaccessible  to  the  gospel.    Most  of 
the  Jewish  Christians  were  gradually  absorbed  by  Gen- 
tile Christian  circles,  while  the  remainder  (Nazarenes, 
Ebionites)    became   heretics   and   disappeared   in   the 
fourth  century. 

(2)  Among  the  G entiles ,  Christianity  spread  east- 
ward and  westward,  chiefly  among  Greeks.     Three 
translations  of  Scripture  mark  its  entrance  into  wider 
circles:     (a)  Syriac  for  the  native  population  of  Syria 
and  Mesopotamia;  (b)  two  Coptic  translations  for  na- 
tives of  middle  and  upper  Egypt;  (c)  Latin  transla- 


14  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

tions,  made  in  North  Africa,  spreading  to  Italy  and 
elsewhere.  The  authors,  dates  and  places  of  these 
translations  are  unknown ;  the  work  probably  extended 
over  several  years  of  second  half  of  second  century. 
Christianity  largely  remained  in  the  Empire,  but  went 
beyond  its  borders  .eastward.  By  the  end  of  this 
period  Christians  were  to  be  found  in  parts  of  Pales- 
tine, Phoenicia,  Coele-Syria,  Cyprus,  Mesopotamia, 
Persia,  Parthia,  India,  Arabia,  Egypt  and  North  Africa, 
throughout  Asia  Minor  and  in  Armenia;  in  all  parts 
of  Greece,  Italy,  in  the  provinces  south  of  the  Danube, 
in  various  parts  of  Gaul,  Belgium,  Spain  and  Britain ; 
most  numerous  in  Asia  Minor,  Cyprus  and  along  the 
shores  of  the  ^Egean,  there  constituting  almost  half  the 
population;  next  in  Egypt,  Africa  about  Carthage, 
South  Spain,  and  at  a  few  points  in  Gaul  and  Italy. 
Elsewhere  they  were  very  sparse;  estimated  at  from 
one-twentieth  to  one-fifth  of  the  population  of  the  Em- 
pire. Alexandria,  Antioch  and  Edessa  (Abgar  IX,  c. 
200)  in  the  East,  Rome  and  Carthage  in  the  West, 
were  the  chief  Christian  cities.  The  cultured,  the  rich, 
civil  and  military  officers,  soldiers,  the  imperial  court 
and  upper  classes  in  general  were  more  and  more 
affected. 

This  splendid  work  was  accomplished  in  the  face  of 
vested  interests,  established  religions,  debased  social 
and  moral  life  and  hostile  governments,  without  mis- 
sionary boards  or  paid  missionaries,  much  of  the  time 
without  church  buildings,  public  services,  trained 
preachers,  without  governmental  protection.  How? 
The  world  was  prepared  for  it,  and  the  common  Chris- 
tians had  great  zeal.  Their  mutual  love  and  helpful- 
ness, their  care  for  the  poor  and  unfortunate,  their 


of  Church  History.  15 

steadfastness  in  persecution,  their  morality,  made  a 
profound  impression;  but  it  was  the  gospel  itself  that 
appealed  chiefly  to  that  heathen  world.  It  was  a 
gospel  of  healing  for  soul  and  body,  of  redemption 
from  sin  and  the  world  of  demons,  of  mystery  in  the 
two  ordinances,  a  revealed  religion,  based  on  a  book, 
and  therefore  authoritative,  giving  assurance  of  im- 
mortality and  a  rational  scheme  for  the  future  life,  a 
rational  explanation  of  the  universe,  a  righteous  and 
loving  God,  a  personal  Savior. 

3.     OPPOSITION. 
References:    N.  i.  148-50;  A.  i.  257-62;  S.  ii.  32-82. 

(1)  Causes  of  Opposition,  (a)  Christians  re- 
nounced and  opposed  the  heathen  religions,  (b)  With- 
drew largely  from  heathen  society,  (c)  Having  no 
images,  they  were  regarded  as  atheists,  (d)  They 
preached  what  seemed  to  be  foolish  and  unreasonable 
doctrines;  e.  g.,  resurrection,  incarnation,  worship  of 
crucified  Jew.  (e)  Injured  certain  trades  dependent 
upon  idolatry,  (f)  Were  thought  to  commit  horrible 
deeds;  e.  g.,  eating  children,  promiscuous  intercourse, 
(g)  Were  thought  to  cause  various  calamities ;  e.  g., 
earthquakes,  floods,  famine,  pestilence,  etc.  (h)  The 
upper  educated  classes  despised  Christianity  as  an  "im- 
moderate and  depraved  superstition."  The  simple 
Christians  professed  to  know  more  of  the  vital  things 
of  life  than  the  philosophers,  (i)  The  government 
opposed  Christianity  because  every  new  religion  re- 
quired a  license,  and  Christianity  was  never  licensed; 
it  frequently  caused  unrest  and  uproars ;  Christians  re- 
fused to  worship  the  national  gods  or  the  image  of  the 


16  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

emperor,  a  service  required  by  the  state,  and  thus 
became  guilty  of  high  treason;  it  was  dissolving  and 
recasting  society  and  government  wherever  it  went; 
Christians  held  secret  meetings  thought  to  be  danger- 
ous to  the  state,  (j)  There  doubtless  remained  an 
unexplained  residuum  of  opposition  due  to  the  an- 
tipathy of  a  sinful  heart  to  a  cleansing  gospel. 

(2)  Efforts  to  Suppress  Christianity.  (References: 
N.  i.  150-72;  H.  i.  153-79;  K.  Sec.  22;  A.  i.  263-86.) 
Persecutions  by  mobs,  municipal,  provincial,  imperial 
government. 

a.  Methods    of   Procedure.     No    consistent   policy. 
Christians  not  tried  by  regular  legal  processes,  but 
subject  to  police  regulations. 

Trajan's  Regulations,  (aa)  Christians  not  to  be 
sought  out  by  officials,  (bb)  When  accused  and  con- 
victed they  must  be  punished,  (cc)  Those  who  deny 
they  are  Christians  and  invoke  the  gods  are  to  be 
released  without  inquiring  into  the  past.  (dd) 
Anonymous  accusations  are  not  to  be  considered. 
(Pliny  Ep.  96,  97;  Euseb.  iii.  33,  note.) 

Hadrian's  regulations  designed  to  protect  Christians 
against  mob  violence  (Euseb.  iv.  9,  note). 

b.  History.     Frequent   local   persecutions   in   vari- 
ous parts  of  Empire,  often  very  severe.     Martyrdom 
of  Symeon  of  Jerusalem  106,  Ignatius  of  Antioch  115, 
Polycarp    of    Smyrna    155;    persecution    at    Athens 
(Euseb.  iv.  23,  3)  ;  death  of  Justin  at  Rome  165;  per- 
secution at  Lyons  and  Vienne   177    (Euseb.   v.   ff). 
Peace  from  202-250.    An  imperial  persecution  250  to 
260  by  Decius,  Callus  and  Valerian  covering  the  em- 
pire.   Cyprian.    Peace  to  305,  then  persecution  to  311 
(Mason,  Persecution  of  Diocletian,  1876).     Edicts  of 


of  Church  History.  17 

Galerius  and  Constantine  311  (Euseb.  viii.  17)  and 
313  (Euseb.  x.  5).  Cessation  of  persecution  within 
the  Roman  Empire.  The  Emperor  a  Christian. 

c.  Modes     of     Punishment,     (a)  Confiscation     of 
property,     (b)  Banishment,     (c)  Imprisonment,    (d) 
Labor  in  the  mines,     (e)  Torture,     (f)   Execution 
by  fire,  wild  beasts  and  for  Roman  citizens  by  the 
sword   (Euseb.  V:lf). 

d.  Results,     (a)  Many    Christians    suffered    death 
— martyrs;    (b)  many  more  suffered  punishment  of 
various  kinds  short  of  death — confessors;    (c)  mul- 
titudes  renounced   Christianity   permanently   or   tem- 
porarily— lapsed;  (d)  many  bribed  the  officers  or  pur- 
chased certificates  stating  that  they  had  sacrificed  to 
the  gods — libellatici.     The  church  was  laid  waste  far 
and  wide.    Differences  of  opinion  concerning  the  treat- 
ment of  the  penitent  caused  schism  and  strife  in  the 
churches. 

(3)  LITERARY  ATTACKS  ON  CHRISTIANITY. 

References:  A.  i.  287-93;  S.  ii.  85-120;  H.  i.  180-9;  K. 
Sees.  23f. 

Frequent  oral  discussions.  No  books  by  Jews  have 
been  preserved,  though  some  were  probably  written. 
Attitude  of  Tacitus  (55-117),  Marcus  Aurelius  (d. 
180),  Juvenal  (60-140),  Epictetus  (60-c.  120),  Lucian 
(120-200).  Celsus'  'True  Discourse"  (177),  an- 
swered by  Origen  (248).  Porphyry  (233-305)  wrote 
fifteen  books  against  Christians.  Hierocles,  governor 
of  Bithynia  under  Diocletian,  wrote  "Candid  Treatise 
against  the  Christians,"  drawing  parallel  between  Ap- 
polonius  of  Tyana  and  Jesus.  All  the  fundamental 


18  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

and  distinctive  facts,  doctrines  and  ideals  of  Christian- 
ity attacked  by  these  heathen  writers.  Much  modern 
opposition  was  anticipated  by  them. 

4.     CHRISTIAN  DEFENSES. 
References:   N.  i.  237-46;  H.  i.  191-206;  S.  i.  37-40,  104-20. 

(1)  Never  by  force  of  arms.  No  account  of  a 
single  uprising  or  sign  of  disloyalty.  (2)  By  heroic 
and  patient  suffering — passive  resistance.  (3)  By  liter- 
ary defenses — apologies.  From  130-250:  (a)  They  de- 
nied all  charges  of  immorality,  political  intrigue  or 
other  evil,  and  asserted  their  loyalty  to  the  state ;  (b) 
demanded  the  trial  of  each  Christian  on  criminal 
charges  rather  than  condemnation  on  the  basis  of  the 
name  Christian;  (c)  explained  and  defended  Chris- 
tian doctrines  and  practices  on  the  basis  of  reason  and 
Scripture,  and  set  forth  the  excellence  of  Christian 
morals;  (d)  attacked  the  absurdities  and  immoralities 
of  the  heathen  religions  and  the  errors  and  inconsist- 
encies of  the  philosophers.  These  apologies  were 
written  both  by  Greeks  and  by  Latins — Greeks  wrote 
in  second  century  and  were  for  the  most  part  philoso- 
phers; Latins  mostly  in  the  third  century  and  were 
rhetoricians.  The  most  important  Greeks  are  (1) 
Aristides  of  Athens,  c.  138.  (2)  Justin,  originally  of 
Palestine,  martyred  c.  165 ;  two  apologies  to  em- 
perors, 147  and  after.  Dialogue  with  Trypho  the  Jew. 

(3)  Athenagoras   of  Athens   wrote   apology  c.    177. 

(4)  Theophilus  of  Antioch,   wrote  to  Autolycus  c. 
190.     The  Latin  apologists  lived  in  North  ^frica  and 
were    (1)  Tertullian  who  wrote  his  apology  c.   197, 
(2)    Minucius  Felix  wrote  Octavius  c.   180.     Many 
others  wrote  apologies  along  with  other  writings. 


of  Church  History.  19 

II.  THE  CHURCH,  ITS  POLITY,  OFFICERS,  ORDINANCES. 

1.  THE   CHURCH.     The   independence   and   signifi- 
cance of  the  local  church  sinks  down  and  is  lost  in  the 
predominance  and  power  of  the  great  city  churches, 
and  these  in  turn  are  merged  into  the  conception  of 
one  universal    (Catholic)    church  which  contains  all 
Christians   and   many   unworthy   people.     It   is   con- 
ceived of  as  an  entity  in   itself,   independent  of  its 
members,   holy,   indivisible   and   inviolate    (Cyprian), 
no  longer  a  community  of  saved,  but  a  saving  insti- 
tution,  outside  of  which  there  is  no  salvation;  not 
the  members,  but  the  institution  is  holy,  the  indivisible 
body  of  Christ,   whose  essence  and  unity  is   in  the 
episcopate;  it  is  the  only  mediator  of  grace.     To  at- 
tempt to  rend  it  is  the  greatest  sin,  and  to  cut  oneself 
off  from  it  is  to  lose  all  hope  of  salvation.     Govern- 
ment of  the  church  passes  largely  or  wholly  into  the 
hands  of  the  clergy,  leaving  the  laity  with  little  sig- 
nificance.      New   and   small   congregations   were   at- 
tached to  the  great  churches,  under  care  of  presbyters. 

Provincial  synods  begin  to  be  held  about  the  middle 
of  second  century  and  became  a  fixed  institution  by 
end  of  period.  Questions  in  dispute  affecting  Christ- 
ianity at  large  were  considered,  and  the  decisions  were 
regarded  with  great  respect  and  soon  became  binding. 
Several  synods  of  importance  in  this  period.  Elvira 
306  (?),  Aries  314,  Ancyra  314. 

2.  ITS  OFFICERS.    (References:  H.  i.  325-40;  K.  Sec. 
34;  A.  i.  389-415;  S.  ii.  121-87.)     Development  rapid, 
but  not  everywhere  uniform. 

(1)  Number  of  Officers,  a.  Old  Biblical  Officers. 
(a)  The  general  officers — apostles,  prophets,  evangel- 


20  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

ists,  etc. — continue  into  this  period,  but  disappear  by 
end  of  second  century,  (b)  The  two  officers  of  the  lo- 
cal church  become  three  (one  bishop,  a  college  of  pres- 
byters and  a  board  of  deacons)  during  first  half  of  sec- 
ond century  (first  in  Ignatius).  These  three  officers 
come  to  be  called  clergy  (elect),  while  other  Christians 
were  only  laity  (people)  ;  to  have  only  clinic  baptism,  to 
be  bound  by  law  to  civil  or  military  office,  to  have  been 
twice  married,  to  have  committed  heinous  sin  after  bap- 
tism, to  have  mutilated  oneself,  or  to  be  a  slave  was  re- 
garded as  a  bar  to  the  clergy  before  end  of  period. 
Bishops  and  presbyters  begin  to  be  called  priests  c.  200, 
set  apart  by  special  grace  conferred  in  ordination, 
standing  between  God  and  the  people,  mediators  of 
grace.  This  holiness  is  official,  not  personal.  The 
clergy  were  supported  from  their  own  estates,  their 
own  labors  and  from  gifts. 

b.  Five  new  officers  had  developed  in  the  larger 
churches  by  250  A.  D. — Subdeacons,  assistants  of  the 
deacons ;  Acolytes,  assistants  of  the  bishops ;  Exorcists, 
Readers,  Janitors.  None  of  these  were  ordained. 

(2)  Bishops,  a.  Development  was  rapid  into  (a) 
monarchial  bishop,  (b)  diocesan  bishop,  (c)  archbish- 
op, (d)  bishops  about  the  great  cities  begin  to  be  re- 
duced to  chor-episcopoi  (country  bishops),  and  in  next 
period  disappear.  Bishops  come  to  be  regarded  as  suc- 
cessors of  the  apostles,  thus  guaranteeing  the  truth  of 
all  church  doctrines;  they  were  all  called  papa  (pope), 
and  their  sees  "Apostolic  sees";  their  authority  came 
through  ordination  and  was  independent  of  the  laity. 

b.  Qualifications.  He  should  be  thirty  years  old, 
chosen  from  the  church  where  he  was  to  preside,  and 
should  have  passed  through  one  or  more  of  the  lower 
grades  of  office. 


of  Church  History.  21 

c.  Election  was  (a)  sometimes  by  local  laity,  espe- 
cially early  in  period,  (b)  by  local  clergy,  with  approval 
of  laity,  (c)  by  neighboring  bishops,  with  approval  of 
local  clergy  and  laity.    As  yet  civil  government  did  not 
interfere  with  elections. 

d.  Ordination  was  by  (a)   neighboring  bishops,  at 
least  three,  and   (b)   later,  by  the  Metropolitan  and 
neighboring  bishops. 

e.  Functions,     (a) To  act  as  head  and  presiding  of- 
ficer in  the  government  of  the  church,  (b)  to  adminis- 
ter the  finances,   (c)   to  administer  confirmation  and 
ordination,  (d)  to  sit  and  vote  in  the  synods,  (e)  to 
preach.     In  addition  to  these  exclusive  privileges,  he 
could  perform  the  functions  of  the  other  officers.   The 
essence  of  the  church  was  thought  to  be  in  him.    Cy- 
prian says:   "The  bishop  is   in  the  church  and  the 
church  in  the  bishop." 

(3)  Presbyters  were  selected  usually  by  people  and 
clergy  and  ordained  by  the  bishop.    They  lose  greatly 
in  dignity  and  position  in  this  period.    Their  functions 
came  to  be  (a)  the  conduct  of  worship  on  ordinary 
occasions  and  in  subordinate  churches  (parishes),  (b) 
administration  of  ordinances,    (c)    instruction  of  the 
people,  (d)  advising  bishops  in  diocesan  and  provin- 
cial synods,  (e)  assisting  in  ordination  of  other  pres- 
byters. 

(4)  Deacons  ordained  by  bishops,  belonged  to  cler- 
gy, but  not  priesthood ;  assisted  in  finances,  in  admin- 
istration of  supper,  etc. 

(5)  Before  end  of  period  the  office  of  metropolitan 
or  archbishop  had  been  developed  in  certain  quarters. 
Except  in  North  Africa,  where  the  office  belonged  to 
the  bishop  oldest  in  service,  he  was  the  bishop  of  the 


22  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

capital  or  metropolitan  city  of  a  political  province,  and 
had  the  superintendence  of  all  the  bishops  in  that 
province.  Other  bishops  of  the  province  were  then 
called  suffragan  bishops.  The  special  duties  of  the 
metropolitan,  as  developed  in  this  and  the  next  periods, 
were  (a)  the  ordination  of  his  suffragans,  who  in  turn 
ordained  their  metropolitan,  (b)  deciding  disputes 
among  his  suffragans,  (c)  the  calling  and  presiding 
over  provincial  synods,  which  were  usually  held  twice  a 
year,  (d)  several  other  minor  duties. 

(6)  from  the  beginning  the  Roman  Church  was  one 
of  the  most  influential  churches  in  Christendom,  due 

(a)  to  its  excellent  character,  strength  and  helpfulness, 

(b)  to  its  location  in  the  eternal  city,  the  capital  of  the 
world,  (c)  to  the  absence  of  any  other  great  church 
in  the  West  that  could  be  a  rival,  (d)  to  the  fact  that 
it  was  an  apostolic  church,   supposed  to  have  been 
founded  by  Peter  and  Paul,  the  greatest  apostles,  who 
were  martyred  and  buried  there.    Toward  the  end  of 
the  period  it  began  to  be  asserted  that  Peter  was  first 
bishop  of  the  church.    But  during  this  period  the  Ro- 
man bishop,  although  widely  influential,  had  no  more 
authority  and  legal  rights  than  the  great  metropolitans 
in    the    East.     He    had    no    jurisdiction    over    other 
churches,  except  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of 
Rome. 

3.  ITS  ORDINANCES.  During  this  period  the  ordi- 
nances became  mysteries,  with  magical  powers,  and 
are  surrounded  with  more  and  more  ceremonies  and 
superstitious  reverence,  and  are  more  and  more  bound 
to  the  officers  in  administration. 


of  Church  History.  23 

(1)  Baptism.     (References:  K.  Sec.  35;  A.  i.  416- 
24;  S.  ii.  247-65.) 

a.  Act.  Prevailingly  immersion,  often,  if  not  usually, 
trine.    Trine  pouring  allowed  first  c.  120  A.  D.,  where 
there  was  not  sufficient  water  to  immerse,  and  in  cases 
of  supposed  fatal  illness  (Novatian).    Tertullian  is  the 
first  to  mention  holy  water   (de<  bap.  4). 

b.  Subject.     Usually  believers  who  as  catechumens 
had  been  instructed  in  Christian  doctrines;  but  also 
infants  of  Christian  parents  and  those  under  care  of 
Christian  people,  with  sponsors  (Tert.).    Infant  bap- 
tism found  possibly  in  Irenseus  (Her.  2:22),  probably 
in  Tertullian  (de  bap.)  and  Origen,  but  first  certainly 
in  Cyprian,  c.  250  A.  D. 

c.  Administrator.     The  bishop    (Ig.   Smyr.  8),  or 
some  one  authorized  by  him  (presbyter,  deacon  or  lay- 
man.  Tert.  de  bap.,  17).    Tendency  is  toward  greater 
freedom  in  this  respect. 

d.  Significance.    It  secures  remission  of  sins,  sancti- 
fies, illuminates,  perfects  (Justin),  washes  away  all  pre- 
vious sin,  regenerates;  without  it  salvation  is  impossi- 
ble (Hermas,  Cyprian). 

e.  Additional  Ceremonies,     (a)  Preceding.    Extend- 
ed instruction,  two  or  three  years  (catechumens),  fast- 
ing (Did.),  renunciation  of  the  devil,  his  pomp  and  his 
angels  (face  westward),  vow  of  obedience  to  Christ 
and  repetition  of  creed  (face  eastward),     (b)  Follow- 
ing.    Anointing  and  imposition  of  hands  for  gift  of 
Holy  Spirit  (in  West  by  bishop  only),  clothes  white 
for  a  week,  kiss  of  peace,  tasting  of  milk  and  honey 
(Tert.  de  bap.  and  de  Corona,  3). 

f.  Time.     Any  time,  but  Easter  and  Pentecost  in 
West  and  Epiphany  in  East,  specially  recommended 
(Tert.  de  bap.). 


24  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

g.  Heretical  (alien)  Baptism.  Opinion  divided. 
North  Africa  and  Asia  Minor  opposed  its  reception. 
Rome  and  other  regions  favored  its  reception  if  ad- 
ministered in  name  of  Trinity.  It  must  be  completed, 
however,  by  imposition  of  hands  of  bishop.  Latter 
view  finally  prevailed. 

(2)  Eucharist.     (References:  K.  Sec.  36;  A.  i.  433- 
40;  S.  ii.  235-47.) 

Eucharist  was  part  of  weekly  worship,  but  is  best 
treated  separately,  a.  Time.  Every  Sunday,  and  to- 
ward end  of  period  at  other  times,  b.  Administrator. 
Bishop,  or  presbyter  authorized  by  him.  Deacons  dis- 
tributed the  elements  and  carried  some  to  the  sick  and 
those  in  prison,  c.  Elements.  Bread  and  wine  min- 
gled with  water.  They  were  taken  from  the  offer- 
ings brought  by  the  people  and  consecrated  by  prayer, 
d.  Participants.  The  baptized,  sometimes  children  as 
well  as  adults.  Toward  end  of  period  none  but  partici- 
pants were  allowed  to  be  present,  others  being  dis- 
missed before  the  supper  (Missa.).  e.  Significance. 
It  is  called  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  without  speci- 
fying how.  It  is  implied  and  expressly  said  to  be  an 
offering  or  sacrifice  in  Iren.  Her.  IV  19 :5  ;  18 :4 ;  Cyp- 
rian, eps.  63.  Regarded  as  a  high  and  holy  mystery, 
important  for  the  support  of  the  spiritual  life.  f.  Cel- 
ebrated in  time  of  Justin  (1  Apol.  66)  with  songs,  read- 
ing Scripture,  homily,  kiss  of  peace,  consecration,  dis- 
tribution by  deacons,  the  participants  standing ;  toward 
end  of  period  much  more  elaborate  ceremonies ;  early 
in  this  period  the  love  feast  (agape)  was  separated 
from  the  supper,  then  gradually  fell  into  disfavor,  and 
in  next  period  was  formally  prohibited. 


of  Church  History.  25 

III.    WORSHIP. 

References:   K  i.  Sec.  36-38:3;  H.  i.  348-57;  A.  i.  440-50; 
S.   ii.    198-235. 

1.  TIME.     (1)   Weekly  Worship.     Sabbath  worship 
continued  into  this  period,  but  ceased  before  its  close, 
being  gradually  superseded  by  first  or  eighth  day  of  the 
week  (heathen  Sunday),  because  Christ  arose  on  this 
day.     It   was   often   before   day   and   after   nightfall 
(Pliny).     Day  was  joyous  (no  fasting,  prayed  stand- 
ing),  in  contrast  with   Sabbath,   which  was  gloomy. 
Apparently  work  continued  on  this  day  in  early  times. 
Tertullian  is  the  first  to  oppose  it.     In  some  places 
worship  may  have  been  held  on  other  days  also.     (2) 
Annual  Seasons.     Passover  or  Easter   (controversies 
over  reckoning,   160  and   196),   Pentecost,   Epiphany 
from  360  on,  dying  day  of  martyrs.     (3)  Fasts.    Two 
weekly    (Did.),   forty  hours  before  passover,  and  at 
other  times  appointed  by  bishop. 

2.  PLACE.     In  private  houses,  rented  halls,  and  about 
200    (Clem.   Al.   and   Tert.)    special   buildings   called 
churches,   Lord's   houses,   houses  of   God,  houses  of 
prayer.    The  building  was  a  parallelogram,  divided  into 
vestibule,  nave  for  the  people  and  raised  platform  for 
the  bishop,  clergy  and  altar.    In  form  it  was  a  modified 
basilica.     Without  pictures,  images,  stained  glass  or 
lights  in  day  time. 

3.  CONTENTS.     Divided  into  two  parts.     (1)   When 
all  are  present,     a.  Singing  of  psalms  and  hymns  to 
music,  adopted  probably  from  both  Jewish  and  heathen 
sources,    b.  Reading  Scripture  (O.  and  N.  Ts.),  prob- 
ably before  end  of  period  divided  into  fixed  lessons,    c. 
Prayers,  with  people  standing,    d.  Preaching  by  bishop, 


26  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

at  first  very  simple,  but  growing  more  elaborate  as 
period  advances.  (2)  When  only  believers  were  pres- 
ent. Celebration  of  the  supper  (see  preceding  section). 

IV.     CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

References:    H.  i.  358-95;  S.  ii.  311-414;  A.  i.  450-61;  K. 
Sees.  38,  39. 

1.  HEATHEN  MORALS  in  this  period  very  low.    (Ref- 
erence:  Dill,  "Roman  Society  from  Nero  to  Marcus 
Aurelius.") 

2.  CHRISTIAN  MORALS,  in  general  greatly  better  than 
heathen. 

( 1 )  Family  life  was  improved ;  opposition  to  marital 
unfaithfulness,  abortion,  exposure  of  children,  degrada- 
tion and  abuse  of  women,  divorce  except  for  adultery. 
Marriage  (monogamy)  was  given  religious  sanction 
before  200,  while  many  of  the  old  marriage  customs 
(ring)  continued;  strong  aversion  to  second  marriages 
(forbidden  to  clergy)  ;  high  estimate  of  celibacy  as  the 
holier  state.  The  dead  were  buried  (not  cremated)  in 
consecrated  cemeteries  (sleeping  places)  without  ex- 
travagant lamentations,  while  the  tomb  was  marked  by 
inscriptions  and  symbols  expressive  of  hope  and  vic- 
tory (anchor,  palm,  harp,  crown).  The  Catacombs  of 
Rome  and  other  places  used  for  burying ;  their  extent, 
ornamentation  (fish,  ship,  dove,  historic  scenes).  Be- 
fore end  of  period  there  were  funeral  sermons  and 
prayers  for  the  dead,  at  first  prayers  of  thanksgiving, 
but  later  intercessions.  Slavery  was  ameliorated  but 
not  abrogated.  Many  slaves  became  Christians,  and 
some  of  them  suffered  martyrdom  heroically. 

(2)  Social  Life.  As  far  as  possible,  Christians  lived 
like  their  neighbors,  but  largely  withdrew  from  cruel, 


of  Church  History.  27 

corrupting  and  idolatrous  amusements  (theatres,  cir- 
cus, gladiatorial  combats,  religious  feasts,  etc.)  ;  from 
trades  and  callings  that  involved  the  support  and  recog- 
nition of  idolatry  (idol  making,  instruction  of  players, 
etc).  This  caused  them  to  be  stigmatized  as  haters  of 
mankind. 

(3)  Civil  and  Army  Life.  Christians  rather  shunned 
public  life  because   it  exposed  them  to   danger  and 
necessitated  contact  with  heathen  rites  and  morals,  and 
because   they   opposed   war   and   capital   punishment. 
Still,  some  were  found  in  the  army  and  in  civil  office.  \ 

(4)  Religious  Life.     There  was   Sunday  worship, 
fasts  on  Wednesday  and  Friday  until  3  p.  m.,  daily 
prayers,  frequently  at  night,  constant  use  of  the  cross 
(Tert.).     There  were  extensive  charities  carried  on 
through  the  church  in  aid  of  widows  and  orphans,  the 
poor,  the  imprisoned,  etc.    Christian  symbols  replaced 
heathen  ones  in  the  adornment  of  the  home,  the  ring, 
etc.    Asceticism  was  highly  regarded  by  200  (Tert.). 
Both  men  and  women,  while  still  living  in  the  midst 
of  society,  renounced  property  and  marriage,  avoided 
wine  and  flesh  and  devoted  themselves  to  prayer  and 
other  religious   exercises   and   strove   for   perfection. 
Their  vow  was  not  irrevocable,  but  they  already  formed 
the  spiritual  aristocracy,  the  pride  of  the  church  (Tert. 
and  Cyprian). 

(5)  Schools  and  Culture.     Apparently  there  were 
no  Christian  schools  for  general  culture,  only  heathen 
schools.    Some  of  the  Christians  were  highly  educated, 
while  others  disdained  and  despised  culture. 

3.  DISCIPLINE.  (References:  H.  i.  341-7;  K.  Sec. 
39 :2 ;  S.  ii.  65-7 ;  A.  i.  424-29.)  (1)  Persons  were  pre- 
pared for  baptism  by  a  period  of  instruction  which  usu- 


28  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

ally  extended  over  two  years,  but  might  be  longer  or 
shorter.  These  catechumens  were  divided  into  three 
classes :  (a)  Hearers,  permitted  to  hear  only  a  part  of 
the  services;  (b)  Kneelers,  permitted  to  take  part  in 
some  of  the  prayers,  but  kneeling;  (c)  Co-standers  f 
who  took  part  in  prayers  standing,  up  to  time  of  eucha- 
ristic  service. 

(2)  All    sins    committed    prior    to    baptism    were 
thought  to  be  washed  away  in  that  ordinance. 

(3)  Sins  committed  after  baptism  were  divided,  from 
Tertullian  on,  into  venial  an\I  mortal  sins:    (a)  Venial 
sins  were  forgiven  on  repentance  by  the  imposition  of 
the  hands  of  the  clergy,      (b)  Mortal  sins   (murder, 
apostasy,  adultery,  heresy,  schism,  etc.)  led  to  exclu- 
sion from  the  church.     Many  held  that  persons  guilty 
of  mortal  sins  could  never  be  restored  to  church  fel- 
lowship ;  others  that  they  could  be  restored  once  ( Her- 
mas)  ;  others  still  laxer.    Long  penance  required  by  all 
parties,  from  one  to  fifteen  or  twenty  years.     At  first 
details  of  discipline  were  left  to  local  churches,  but 
before  end  of  period  it  was  regulated,  in  part  at  least, 
by  synods   (Ancyra,  314).     Four  degrees  of  punish- 
ment:   (a)  Weepers  outside  the  church,  (b)  hearers, 
(c)   kneelers,   (d)   co-standers;  the  last  three 'corres- 
ponding to  grades  of  catechumens.     On  conclusion  of 
the  period  of  penitence  the  imposition  of  hands  and  the 
kiss  of  peace  admitted  to  communion.    This  was  only 
the  church's  forgiveness,  and  did  not  insure  divine  for- 
giveness.    This  penitence  was  only  an  assurance  of 
repentance,  but  Tert.  calls  it  "satisfaction,"  and  before 
long  it  began  to  be  regarded  as  the  means  of  regain- 
ing favor  with  God.    All  penitent  sinners  received  the 
communion  when  dying — the  viaticum.     Martyrdom, 


of  Church  History.  29 

the  "baptism  of  blood,"  was  supposed  to  wash  away  all 
sins.  Persons  who  had  committed  mortal  sins  were  not 
admitted  to  the  clergy. 

V.     DEVELOPMENT  OF  DOCTRINE. 

References:   A.  i.  348-87;  H.  i.  259-98;  K.  i.  Sec.  33;  S.  ii. 
509-620. 

1.  MAKING  THE  CHRISTIAN  BIBLE.  Christians  soon 
began  to  write  as  occasion  demanded  (Paul,  some  of 
the  twelve,  others).  These  scattered  writings  circu- 
lated more  or  less  freely  from  the  first,  having  an  au- 
thority equal  to  that  of  the  author  and  their  intrinsic 
worth  for  the  church  at  large.  As  the  generation  that 
knew  Jesus  passed  away,  these  books  became  the  sole 
depositories  of  information  about  Him,  and  the  earliest 
and  most  authoritative  interpretation  of  Him.  So  they 
began  to  be  quoted  for  content  of  fact  and  doctrine. 
As  time  passed,  the  supreme  importance  of  some  of 
them  was  more  and  more  recognized,  and  they  began  to 
be  put  together  here  and  there,  and  to  be  called  a  canon 
(rule)  by  which  to  test  doctrine.  Controversy  with  the 
Gnostics  doubtless  hastened  this  process.  At  any  rate, 
by  160  (Muatorian  Canon)  the  widely  scattered 
Christians,  without  conciliary  action  or  much  discus- 
sion, had  reached  a  measure  of  agreement  as  to  what 
books  were  to  be  treated  as  normative.  Absolute  unan- 
imity was  never  reached,  and  at  the  close  of  the  period 
seven  of  the  books  now  in  our  New  Testament  were 
still  in  doubt  in  the  West,  while  certain  sections  of  the 
East  rejected  this  or  that  book  now  accepted  by  us. 
Other  books  not  used  by  us  were  read  in  the  churches. 
None  of  the  early  ecumenical  councils  passed  upon  the 


30  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

subject.  The  books  were  selected  by  a  process  of  natural 
selection  by  the  Christians  of  the  world  under  the  prac- 
tical test  of  daily  use,  and,  we  believe,  divine  guidance. 
The  present  canon  was  first  defined  by  the  Council  of 
Hippo,  393.  This  collection  came  to  be  called  the  New 
Covenant  (Testament),  and  was  put  alongside  the  Jew- 
ish Bible,  which  now  came  to  be  called  the  Old  Cove- 
nant (Testament),  and  later  the  two  together  were 
called  the  Bible  (book). 

2.  THE  FIRST  CREED  (Apostles'),  the  product  of  nat- 
ural forces,  not  the  decree  of  a  council.     It  probably 
grew  up  around  the  baptismal  formula.    Its  substance 
is  found  in  Ire.  and  in  Tert.,  who  calls  it  a  "rule  of 
faith."    Its  words  were  not  then  fixed,  but  it  had  most 
of  the  ideas  of  the  Apostles'  Creed  into  which  it  later 
developed  (C.  C.  ii.  11-41). 

3.  RISE  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THEOLOGY.    The  his- 
tory of  theology  is  the  story  of  faith  seeking  knowl- 
edge.   It  is  the  formulation  and  development  of  Chris- 
tian truth  in  contact  with — usually  in  more  or  less  con- 
flict with — the  general  thought  of  the  time ;  one  of  the 
deposits  of  controversy.  During  this  period  it  was  in  a 
formative  state.    There  was  general  agreement,  but  no 
authoritative  doctrine  (dogma).    (1)  God.    There  was 
one  only  true,  living  and  righteous  God,  Creator  and 
Preserver  of  all  things  visible  and  invisible   (against 
Gnostics).    (2)  Christ  and  the  Trinity.  There  was  gen- 
eral agreement  that  Christ  was  God  (Pliny,  Igna.)  and 
man.    The  problem  was  to  formulate  a  statement  which 
preserved    (a)   the  unity  of  God,    (b)   the  Deity  of 
Christ,  (c)  the  independent  personality  of  Christ.   All 
Christians  held  to  (a),  but  some  were  uncertain  as  to 
(b)    or    (c),   and   a   satisfactory   statement  was   not 


of  Church  History.  31 

reached  in  this  period.  Three  general  types  of  Chris- 
tology  were  developed:  (a)  Dynamic  Monarchianism. 
Christ  not  truly  God,  but  divinely  endowed  and  exalted 
to  divinity.  Alogi  in  Asia  Minor,  170;  Theodotians 
(Theodotus  the  tanner  and  Theodotus  the  banker)  at 
Rome,  192  on ;  Artemonites,  200  on ;  Paul  of  Samosata 
at  Antioch,  260  on ;  (b)  Modal  Monarchianism.  Christ 
and  God  are  identical,  the  Son  only  a  manifestation  of 
the  Father.  Praxeas  of  Asia  Minor  at  Rome,  180  on; 
Noetus  of  Smyrna  at  Rome,  200  on ;  Zephyrinus  and 
Callistus  I,  bishops  of  Rome,  200  on ;  Sabellius  at  Rome 
and  in  Egypt,  c.  210  on;  Beryll  of  Bostra,  244;  (c) 
Subordination  or  Logos  Christology.  The  Logos  is  of 
the  Father  but  subordinate  to  Him.  Held  by  many,  but 
specially  Tertullian,  Hypolitus  and  Origen ;  eternal 
generation.  The  relation  between  divine  and  human 
in  Christ  not  yet  much  discussed.  (3)  Holy  Spirit. 
Not  much  discussed.  (4)  Man.  Emphasis  was  laid 
upon  the  freedom  of  the  will,  but  anthropology  and 
soteriology  remained  undeveloped.  There  is  a  distinct 
legalistic  tendency,  a  failure  to  grasp  the  evangel  of 
Paul.  In  general,  Christ's  death  was  not  emphasized ; 
rather  His  revelation  of  life  and  immortality.  In  some 
places  Chiliasm  highly  developed.  Belief  in  good 
angels  and  in  demons  who  were  constantly  exorcised 
by  name  of  Christ. 

VI.     SECTS  AND  SCHISMS. 

References:   N.  i.  173-210;  S.  ii.  415-508;  H.  i.  207-58;  K.  i. 
Sees.  26-29;  Sees.  40,  41;  A.  i.  304-348;  429-32. 

1.     HERESIES. 

(1)  Among   Jewish    Christians.     Ebionites,    Naza- 
renes  and  others.    Various  shades  of  opinion,  but  gen- 


32  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

eral  agreement  in  trying  to  combine  Judaism  and  Chris- 
tianity. Mosaic  law  was  thought  to  be  binding  on 
Jews  (or  all)  ;  Jesus  was  only  a  man,  but  was  specially 
endowed  by  the  Spirit,  and  pious  above  all  men.  He 
was  the  Messiah,  worked  miracles  and  supplemented 
the  Law  by  His  commands.  General  opposition  to 
Paul. 

(2)  Among  Gentile  Christians.  Gnosticism,  the 
most  dangerous  of  all  the  early  heresies,  was  an  at- 
tempt to  combine  pagan  philosophy  with  the  new  Chris- 
tian thought.  It  rose  and  flourished  in  Asia  Minor, 
Egypt,  Syria  and  Rome. 

Doctrines,  a.  God.  One  absolute  Spirit,  with  a 
descending  series  of  JEons  or  Emanations,  source  of 
all  good  (Pleroma).  b.  Matter.  The  eternal  kenoma, 
abode  of  evil.  c.  Visible  Universe  was  mixture  of 
spirit  and  matter,  good  and  evil,  brought  into  shape 
by  the  demiurge,  usually  identical  with  the  God  of  the 
Jews,  who  worked  either  in  opposition  to  or  in  igno- 
rance of  the  true  God.  d.  Man  was  mixture  of  good 
and  evil.  Three  classes:  (a)  hylic,  wholly  material 
and  incapable  of  salvation ;  (b)  psychic,  endowed  with 
soul  and  capable  of  partial  salvation;  (c)  pneumatic 
(Gnostics),  endowed  with  spirit  and  capable  of  com- 
plete salvation,  e.  Redemption  was  effected  through 
knowledge  revealed  by  Christ,  one  of  the  highest  ./Eons 
who  came  on  the  man  Jesus  at  His  baptism  and  left 
before  crucifixion.  /.  All  spirit  would  finally  be 
released  from  matter  and  ascend  with  all  the  redeemed 
into  the  pleroma,  where  it  would  abide  forever.  From 
these  fundamental  ideas  flowed  several  other  doctrines : 
(a)  Rejection  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  Jewish 
elements  of  the  New;  (b)  denial  of  the  reality  of 


of  Church  History.  33 

r 

Christ's  body  and  sufferings;  denial  of  the  resurrec- 
tion ;  (c)  an  ascetic  or  a  libertine  life.  Gnosticism  was 
supported  by  a  brief  canon,  a  pretended  secret  tradi- 
tion and  an  extensive  spurious  literature  ascribed  to 
apostles.  The  most  important  Gnostics  were  Saturninus 
in  Syria,  c.  100 ;  Basilides  in  Egypt,  about  130 ;  Valen- 
tinus  in  Rome,  c.  135 ;  Marcion  in  Rome,  c.  138.  Mar- 
cion  organized  his  followers  into  independent  churches. 
Gnosticism,  in  one  form  or  another,  extended  over 
nearly  the  whole  Christian  world,  and  continued  till 
the  fourth  century.  Gnostics  regarded  themselves  as 
the  elite  among  Christians  and  produced  an  extensive 
literature. 

2.  SCHISMS.  (1)  Montanism  (References:  N.  i. 
202-6;  H.  i.  233-40;  K.  Sec.  40;  A.  i.  342-7) 
was  the  other  extreme  from  Gnosticism — a  ref- 
ormation— puritanism.  (a)  History.  It  was  found- 
ed by  Montanus  (Priscilla  and  Maximilla)  in 
Phrygia,  c.  150,  spread  over  Asia  Minor,  North 
Africa  and  the  East,  made  a  profound  impression,  al- 
most won  the  recognition  of  Rome,  but  was  finally 
condemned  as  heresy  and  disappeared  in  the  sixth 
century,  (b)  Doctrines  and  Aims.  It  sought  to  re- 
form the  church  and  restore  primitive  Christianity. 
While  agreeing  in  general  with  church  doctrines,  it 
claimed  to  be  the  continuation  of  prophecy  and  mirac- 
ulous gifts  by  the  dispensation  of  the  Paraclete  through 
Montanus ;  opposed  the  hierarchy  and  asserted  the  uni- 
versal priesthood  of  believers ;  enforced  rigid  discipline, 
rejected  second  marriages,  demanded  frequent  and 
rigid  fasts,  exalted  virginity,  distinction  of  venial  from 
mortal  sins,  of  which  the  latter  could  not  be  forgiven 
by  the  church ;  expectation  of  the  end  of  the  world. 


34  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

(2)  Novatianism  (References:  N.  i.  206f ;  H.  i.  241- 
6;  K.  Sec.  41:3;  A.  i.  429-32)  rose  at  Rome  in  251, 
after  Decian  persecution.    Novatian,  a  presbyter  in  the 
Roman  church,  who  had  received  only  clinic  baptism, 
opposed  the  election  of  Cornelius  as  Bishop  of  Rome, 
and  was  himself  elected  opposing  bishop.    In  doctrine 
he  agreed  with  the  church,  but  maintained  that  the 
lapsed  should  not  be  restored  to  church  fellowship, 
and  rebaptized  all  who  came  to  him.     He  and  his 
followers   were  excommunicated,  but  the   movement 
spread   rapidly   over   much   of   the   empire,   dividing 
churches  and  founding  new  ones,  which  existed  till  the 
sixth  century.    They  called  themselves  Cathari,  Puri- 
tans. 

(3)  Donatism  (References:  N.  i.  208-10;  H.  i.  249- 
58 ;  K.  63  :1 ;  A.  i.  511-18)  arose  at  Carthage  during  the 
Diocletian  persecution.    A  fanatical  party  in  North  Af- 
rica courted  martyrdom  and  venerated  martyrs'  bones. 
Constantine  opposed,  and  after  their  condemnation  by 
several   church  councils,   persecuted  them.     Persecu- 
tion continued  with  interruptions  throughout  fourth 
century.     Augustine  apposed  them  and  counseled  their 
suppression.    Accordingly,  in  415  the  government  un- 
dertook  more   vigorous   measures.     Still   they   main- 
tained their  existence,  even  through  the  Vandal  in- 
vasion, and  were  swept  out  of  existence  with  the  rest 
of  Christianity  in  North  Africa  by  the  Mohammedan 
invasion  in  the  seventh  century. 

They  agreed  with  the  church  in  organization  and  in 
doctrine,  infant  baptism,  baptismal  regeneration,  etc.; 
but  rebaptized,  held  that  the  validity  of  an  ordinance 
depended  on  the  character  of  the  administrator,  op- 


Church  Histor.  35 


posed  the  interference  of  the  government  in  church 
affairs  (after  futile  efforts  to  influence  the  govern- 
ment in  their  behalf),  enforced  strict  discipline. 

(4)  Manichaism  (References:  N.  194-7;  H.  i.  225-7; 
K.  Sec.  29;  A.  i.  335-42),  more  a  rival  religion  closely 
akin  to  Gnosticism  than  a  sect  of  Christianity  ;  founded 
early  in  third  century  in  Persia  by  Mani  d.  277;  he 
grafted  Buddhist  and  Christian  elements  upon  the  old 
Zoroastrian  religion,  and  proclaimed  the  mixture  as 
the  only  genuine  Christianity.  By  his  gifts  he  attained 
great  favor  and  propagated  his  views  widely  in  Persia  ; 
spread  into  the  Empire,  were  persecuted  by  Diocletian 
(287)  and  in  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  deeply  affected 
Italy  and  North  Africa  (Augustine).  It  disappeared 
as  an  organization  in  sixth  century,  though  its  in- 
fluence continued  deep  into  the  Middle  Ages  in  the 
doctrines  of  other  sects.  Its  principal  doctrines  were 
an  absolute  dualism,  rejection  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and  of  the  Jewish  elements  from  the  New,  Docetic 
Christology.  The  world  is  a  mixture  of  the  two  ele- 
ments of  light  and  darkness,  and  the  work  of  Christ 
is  to  redeem  the  light.  The  Manichseans  were  divided 
into  "hearers"  and  "perfect,"  the  latter  practicing 
rigid  asceticism,  rejecting  marriage,  etc.  They  were 
organized  into  independent  churches,  kept  Sunday, 
had  simple  worship,  celebrated  baptism  with  oil  and 
the  supper  with  bread  only. 

VII.     CHRISTIAN  LITERATURE. 

References:  N.  i.  211-90;  S.  ii.  621-866;  H.  i.  191-206;  K. 
Sees.  30-32;  A.  i.  293-298. 

The  Christian  literature  of  the  period  was  chiefly 
in  Greek,  but  in  North  Africa  Latin  was  the  literary 


36  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

language  of  Christianity.  From  the  region  of  Edessa 
emanated  a  translation  of  Scripture  into  Syriac  along 
with  some  other  literature  of  minor  importance.  In 
addition  to  defenses  of  Christianity  against  heathen- 
ism (see  apologists),  there  appeared  able  and  exten- 
sive polemics  against  Gnosticism  and  other  perversions 
of  Christianity,  against  Montanists,  Novatianists  and 
other  schismatics;  expositions  of  Scripture,  often  fan- 
ciful and  crude ;  tracts  for  edification  and  the  enforce- 
ment of  Christian  virtues;  explanation  and  defense 
of  prevailing  religious  customs ;  toward  end  of  period 
tracts  on  doctrines  and  the  beginnings  of  systematic 
theology  and  of  history ;  wholly  by  Gentile  Christians. 
It  adopted  the  prevalent  literary  forms,  and  compares 
favorably  in  ability  and  finish  with  the  literature  of 
the  heathen.  The  most  important  authors  of  this 
period  in  Greek  were  Clement  of  Rome,  c.  96;  Bar- 
nabas, c.  120;  Ignatius,  c.  115;  Hermas,  c.  140;  Di- 
dache,  c.  120;  Aristides,  c.  140;  Justin  Martyr,  fc. 
165 ;  Tatian,  c.  172 ;  Athenogoras,  c.  177 ;  Irenaeus,  fc. 
202;  Clement  of  Alexandria,  fc.  220;  Hippolytus,  fc. 
235 ;  Origen,  fc.  254.  The  only  authors  of  note  who 
used  the  Latin  were  Tertullian,  f c.  220 ;  Cyprian,  f258, 
and  Novatian,  c.  251. 

SECOND   PERIOD,  323   TO  c.  600. 

Christianity  in  the  Christian  Roman  Empire.     The 
%    Imperial  Church  gradually  dissolving  with  the  disso- 
lution of  the  Empire. 

I.     EXTERNAL  HISTORY. 

1.  SECULAR   HISTORY.     Constantine    (sole   emperor 
323-37)    reorganizes   the   government,    regulates   the 


of  Church  History.  37 

taxes,  separates  military  from  civil  government,  abol- 
ishes the  Pretorian  guard,  moves  the  capital  of  the 
empire  to  Byzantium  (Nova  Roma)  ;  divides  empire 
among  his  three  sons  as  emperors;  Constantine  II 
(337-40)  reigns  over  Gaul ;  Constans  (337-50)  Illyri- 
cum,  Italy,  and  after  defeating  and  killing  Constan- 
tine II  (340),  over  Gaul  also;  Constantius  (337-61) 
over  Orient,  and  after  death  of  Constans  (350)  over 
the  reunited  empire.  Julian  (361-3),  Jovian  (363f), 
Valentinian  I  (364-75)  divides  empire  again,  making 
his  brother  Valens  emperor  over  Eastern  half  (364- 
78)  ;  Gratian,  emperor  in  West  (375-83)  makes  Theo- 
dosius  emperor  in  East  (379-95),  on  death  of  Valens 
in  battle  with  Goths.  Gratian,  killed  by  the  usurper 
Clemens  Maximus  (383-8),  is  succeeded  by  Valen- 
tinian II  (383-94).  On  his  death  Theodosius  once 
more  unites  the  whole  empire  (394-5).  On  his  death 
it  was  again  divided,  never  to  be  re-united,  though  it 
was  regarded  as  a  unit  with  a  divided  government 
until  476,  when  the  fiction  of  re-union  was  revived  by 
the  overthrow  of  the  western  emperor,  the  delivery  of 
the  imperial  insignia  to  the  emperor  in  the  East,  and 
the  actual  government  of  Italy  by  Germans.  The 
Western  Empire  fell  in  476,  the  Eastern  in  1453. 

In  East.     Theodosius  was  succeeded  by  his  elder 
son  Arcadius    (395-408).      Theodosius   II    (408-50). 
Marcian  (450-7).     Leo  I  (457-74).     Zeno  (474-91). 
Anastasius  I  (491-518).   Justin  I  (518-27),  Justinian 
I,  The  Great  (527-65),  Justin  II  (565-78),  Tiberius 
II   (578-82).     Maurice  (582-602).     The  empire  was 
able  to  drive  westward  the  West  and  East  Goths  who 
had  at  first  appropriated  territory  south  of  the  Dan- 
ube ;  but  lost  territory  on  the  East  to  the  Persians ; 


38  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

was  torn  by  internal  strife  due  to  corrupt  court  and 
bitter  religious  controversy.  Justinian,  making  a  de- 
termined effort  to  restore  authority  over  the  West, 
succeeded  through  his  great  generals  Belisarius  and 
Narses,  in  recovering  North  Africa  (534)  and  Italy 
(555).  Most  of  the  latter  was  lost  again  (568)  to 
the  Lombards,  and  North  Africa  in  seventh  century 
I  rfto  Mohammedans. 

In  West.  Theodosius  was  succeeded  by  his  younger 
son  Honorius  (395-423),  who  removed  the  imperial 
residence  to  Ravenna  for  safety,  402.  After  a  usurper 
comes  Valentinian  III  (425-55)  ;  utter  confusion  till 
476,  when  Romulus  Augustulus  was  forced  to  resign 
by  the  German  adventurer  Odoacer,  leader  of  the 
Heruli,  who  rules  Italy  as  patrician  under  the  eastern 
emperor. 

One  by  one  the  German  tribes  had  rent  the  western 
provinces  from  the  empire  and  set  up  independent 
governments,  thus  laying  the  foundations  of  the  mod- 
ern European  states.  They  were  still  barbarous,  hav- 
ing neither  literature  nor  written  language,  no  cities 
or  settled  life,  with  organization  gradually  developing 
from  tribal  into  kingly;  imperfect  agriculture;  largely 
engaged  in  .hunting  and  war;!  either  heathen  or  Arian 
in  religion;  they  everywhere  largely  overthrew  exist- 
ing institutions.  They  broke  over  the  Rhine  and  the 
Danube  about  the  same  time.  In  375  the  West  Goths 
(Visigoths),  pressed  by  the  Huns  and  East  Goths, 
crossed  the  lower  Danube,  defeated  and  killed  Valens 
at  Adrianople  in  378,  and  were  permitted  by  Theodo- 
sius to  settle;  soon  rebelled  (395)  and  wasted  Mace- 
donia, Illyria  and  Greece ;  moving  westward  they  enter 
Italy  (401),  sack  Rome  (410),  then  become  allies  of 


of  Church  History.  39 

Romans,  move  into  South  Gaul  and  Spain  to  fight 
other  Germans  and  found  West  Gothic  Empire  in 
Spain,  with  capital  at  Toledo  (415-711).  Vandals, 
Suevi  and  Alani  had  crossed  the  Rhine  (406),  fought 
their  way  across  Gaul  into  Spain  (409),  where  they 
settled,  Vandals  in  South,  Alani  in  Southwest,  Suevi 
in  Northwest.  Attacked  by  Goths  the  Vandals  cross 
to  North  Africa  (429)  and  form  an  empire,  capital  at 
Carthage,  that  lasts  till  534.  They  waste  the  country ; 
persecute  orthodox  Christians;  found  a  navy,  waste 
the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  and  sack  Rome  (455), 
(Vandalism).  Burgundians  at  first  settled  on  middle 
Rhine,  but  c.  443  on  upper  Rhine.  Alemanni,  c.  443, 
settled  modern  Alsace  and  part  of  Switzerland. 
Angles,  Saxons  and  Jutes  began  invasion  of  England 
449,  and  gradually  over-ran  all  except  Wales  and 
Cornwall,  destroying  all  civilization  and  establishing 
heathenism  again.  Formed  seven  kingdoms  (hep- 
tarchy). The  Huns  (Mongolians)  appear  in  East 
Europe  375,  spread  over  country  north  of  the  Danube 
and  under  their  king,  Attila  (Scourge  of  God),  waste 
much  of  West  Europe;  defeated  at  Chalons  (451)  by 
Romans  and  allied  Germans ;  they  wasted  North  Italy 
452,  but  Attila  died  453  and  his  kingdom  falls  to 
pieces.  The  Salian  Franks,  c.  406,  begin  to  cross  the 
lower  Rhine  and  spread  over  North  Gaul;  their  king, 
Clovis  (481-511),  defeated  Syagrius,  the  last  Roman 
governor  in  Gaul,  at  Soissons  486,  makes  himself  king 
of  all  the  Franks,  thus  forming  the  Frankish  Empire; 
defeats  the  Alemanni  (496)  at  Strasburg,  becomes  am 
orthodox  Christian  and  extends  his  power  over  most 
of  Gaul,  founding  the  Merovingian  dynasty.  The 
East  Goths  (Ostro-Goths)  follow  the  West  Goths 


40  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

across  the  lower  Danube  and  settle  in  Pannonia;  by 
agreement  with  Eastern  emperor,  their  king,  Theodoric 
the  Great  (474-526)  undertook  to  recover  Italy  for 
the  empire  (489)  ;  he  defeated,  captured  and  executed 
Odoacer  493,  and  then,  instead  of  turning  over  Italy 
to  the  Eastern  empire,  founded  the  East  Gothic  e'm- 
pire  in  North  Italy  with  capital  at  Verona ;  a  great  and 
good  ruler,  establishing  justice,  preserving  the  old 
culture  and  restoring  order  out  of  chaos.  His  min- 
ister, Cassiodorus,  wrote  history  of  the  Goths.  Boe- 
thius  and  Symmachus  executed  525.  In  535  East  * 
Empire  began  war  to  exterminate  East  Goths  in  Italy ; 
after  20  years  fighting  they  disappear  and  Italy  is 
made  a  province  of  Eastern  empire  with  capital  at  Ra-* 
venna  (exarchate).  The  Lombards,  who  since  about 
500  had  settled  in  Pannonia,  invaded  Italy  568,  made 
Pavia  their  capital  and  gradually  overran  most  of 
central  Italy,  founding  duchies  in  Friaul,  Spoleto  and 
Beneventum.  Venice,  Ravenna,  Naples  and  Calabria 
remained  in  possession  of  the  Eastern  empire;  Rome 
and  the  Patrimony  of  Peter  was  ruled  by  the  pope,  . 
while  acknowledging  the  suzerainty  of  the  Eastern  f 
emperor. 

2.  EXTERNAL  HISTORY  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  (Refer- 
ences: N.  i.  305-19;  H.  i.  410-26;  K.  Sec.  42;  A.  i. 
463-504;  S.  iii.  10-71.)  At  beginning  of  period  per- 
haps one-tenth  of  the  population  was  Christian,  at  close 
the  whole  of  it.  One-tenth  was  won  in  300  years,  and 
remaining  nine-tenths  in  275  years. 

(1)  Decay  and  death  of  heathenism  and  establish- 
ment of  Christianity  within  the  Empire — both  natives* 
and  Germans  converted  by  end  of  period,  except  in 
England. 


of  Church  History.  41 

Gradually  heathenism  dies  both  in  East  and  West"] 
and  Christianity,  itself  being  corrupted  by  degrees,  — 
succeeds  to  its  place  in  private  and  public  life  in  the 
state.  It  is  now  to  have  governmental  favor  and  con-* 
trol.  Not  a  Christian  foresaw  the  danger,  not  a  single 
protest  except  by  Donatists,  and  by  them  only  after 
failure  to  win  favor  of  the  government.  World  was 
accustomed  to  union  of  religion  and  the  state,  and  ' 
Christianity  accepted  it  as  matter  of  course.  Each 
party  protested  under  persecution  and  sought  to  win 
favor  of  state,  but  no  party  protested  against  the 
principle  of  union.  \Constantine  did  not,  except  in 
a  few  cases,  persecute  or  repress  heathenism,  but 
favored  Christianity  without  establishing  it  as  the' 
state  religion.  He  preached,  promoted  Christians  in 
office,  relieved  the  clergy  from  taxation,  military  and 
municipal  duties,  built  churches,  legalized  gifts  to 
churches,  made  Constantinople  a  Christian  city,  made 
Sunday  a  legal  holiday,  modified  some  cruel  laws, 
gave  his  sons  a  Christian  education;  considered  him- 
self bishop  in  externals,  called  council  of  Nicea,  re- 
pressed the  Donatists,  favored  the  orthodox,  but  later 
the  Arians.  Constantine  II  and  Constans  favored  the 
orthodox;  Constantius  repressed  heathenism  (heathen 
sacrifice  made  capital  crime  356),  and  tried  ineffec- 
tually to  impose  Arianism  on  the  entire  Empire  (after 
350).  Julian,  educated  as  a  Christian,  secretly  re- 
turned to  heathenism  (351),  and  as  emperor  re- 
nounced Christianity  and  sought  to  revive  heathenism 
— restored  and  reorganized  the  heathen  priesthood 
and  worship,  organized  charities  after  Christian 
models;  tolerated  all  parties  of  Christians  in  order 
to  introduce  confusion,  but  removed  them  from  mili- 


42  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

tary  and  civil  office,  imposed  heavy  taxes,  forced  them 
to  restore  heathen  property  and  support  heathen  wor- 
ship; forbade  Christians  to  teach  in  the  state  schools 
or  even  study  the  classics ;  wrote  against  Christianity ; 
favored  the  Jews  and  sought  ineffectually  to  rebuild 
the  temple  at  Jerusalem.  Jovian  restored  Christianity 
to  its  former  privileges  but  tolerated  heathenism ;  Val- 
entinian  and  Valens  prohibited  bloody  heathen  sacri- 
fices and  divination,  branding  heathenism  as  paganism. 
Valens  was  Arian  and  persecuted  the  orthodox.  Gra- 
tian  renounced  the  title  of  Pontifex  Maximus,  con- 
fiscated the  heathen  temples,  abolished  the  privileges 
of  the  heathen  priests  and  vestal  virgins,  withdrew 
state  support  from  public  worship,  and  in  382  re- 
moved the  altar  and  statue  of  Victory  from  senate 
house;  Theodosius  further  repressed  heathenism  andj 
fully  established  orthodox  Christianity  as  the  religion 
of  the  Empire ;  many  temples  East  and  West  destroyed 
by  mobs.  In  East  Theodosius  II  ordered  (435)  all 
temples  to  be  destroyed  or  turned  into  churches ;  Jus- 
tinian I  prohibited  heathen  worship  on  pain  of  death] 
and  in  529  closed  the  school  of  Athens,  thus  bringing 
heathen  culture  to  end.  In  West  the  German  invasion 
largely  destroyed  heathenism,  but  it  lingered  till  mid-  | 
die  of  sixth  century.  (How  much  still  lingers  in  the 
church?)  (At  the  end  of  the  period  heathenism  is 
dead  within  the  bounds  of  the  old  Roman  Empire 

Jand  Christianity  has  taken  its  place  as  the  state  re- 
ligion.) In  the  imperial  government  and  among  the 
Franks  it  is  orthodox,  among  other  Germans,  Arian. 
This  the  principal  mission  work  of  the  period.  Details 
as  to  where,  by  whom  and  when  Germans  were  con- 
verted to  Arianism,  then  to  orthodoxy,  unknown  for 


of  Church  History.  43 

most  part;  apparently  it  was  with  ease  and  without^ 
persecution.  Probable  reasons:  (1)  Their  religion 
was  a  nature  worship,  which  probably  had  little  hold 
on  them,  was  unorganized,  without  priests,  images, 
temples,  social  worship,  liturgy,  sacred  books  or  theol- 
ogy. (2)  In  migrating  they  left  behind  all  sacred 
places;  gods  were  local  deities,  and  hence  largely  left 
behind,  too.  (3)  Christianity's  union  with  culture  and 
civilization,  its  ornate  worship,  great  churches,  theol- 
ogy, sacred  books,  priesthood,  etc.,  easily  mastered 
these  untutored  children  of  nature. 

(2)  Missions  outside  the  Empire.-  (1)  In  the  West, 
N.  i.  412-15;  H.  i.  619-31;  651-61.  a.  Ireland  evan- 
gelized by  Patrick,  a  Briton.  Carried  as  captive  to 
Ireland  he  escaped,  was  converted,  returned  to  Ireland 
and  began  work  c.  432.  Great  success.  Ireland  soon 
nominally  Christian.  The  church  had  monastic  organ- 
ization, missionary  enthusiasm,  culture,  was  inde- 
pendent of  Rome,  "Isle  of  Saints."  b.  In  Scotland 
first  important  missionary  was  Ninian,  a  Pict,  educated 
at  Rome,  who  preached  among  Picts  of  Southwest 
Scotland,  c.  402  on.  Work  did  not  prosper  until  Irish 
began.  Columba  (521-97),  a  well  educated  Irish 
monk,  who  had  done  much  work  in  Ireland,  settled 
with  twelve  companions  at  lona,  563 ;  evangelized  Picts 
and  Scots  over  much  of  Scotland,  founded  churches 
and  monasteries.  Christianity  independent  of  Rome 
and  of  same  general  character  as  that  in  Ireland,  mon- 
astic organization,  emphasis  on  education,  simple  piety, 
missionary  zeal. 

(2)  In  the  East  (K.  Sec.  64;  A.  i.  499-505).  a.  Per- 
sia. Christianity,  introduced  into  the  region  east  of  the 
Tigris  in  preceding  period,  continued  to  flourish  in 


44  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

this.  Under  the  Parthians  (226)  Christians  were  not 
molested,  but  under  the  native  Sassanide  dynasty 
(226-632),  who  were  devoted  to  Zoroastrianism,  they 
were  bitterly  persecuted  at  times,  e.  g.,  343-78  and 
418-48.  Persian  Christians  long  closely  allied  with| 
those  of  the  Empire,  hence  suspected  of  disloyalty  to 
Persia,  which  was  usually  at  war  with  the  Empire. 
In  410  Bishop  of  Ctesiphon  was  made  head  of  the 
church,  and  in  423  appeals  to  Antioch  were  forbidden, 
thus  severing  the  Persian  from  the  imperial  church.! 
The  Nestorians,  driven  from  the  Empire  (431  on- 
ward), were  welcomed  in  Persia,  and  in  498  the  whole 
Persian  church  adopted  Nestorianism.  Henceforth 
development  was  independent,  missions  flourished,  ex- 
tending to  India  and  even  China,  where  flourishing 
churches  were  established.  Had  married  clergy,  mon- 
asteries and  schools,  b.  Armenia.  Mesrob,  c.  440,  in- 
vented alphabet  and  translated  Scripture  into  Arme- 
nian, beginning  the  golden  age  of  Armenian  literature. 
They  resisted  (c.  450)  an  attempt  of  the  Persians  to 
force  Zoroastrianism  on  them,  rejected  Nestorianism, 
but  accepted  Monophisitism,  rejecting  creed  of  Chal- 
cedon,  527.  Toward  end  of  fourth  century  Armenian 
church  became  entirely  independent  of  the  imperial  * 
church.  Had  married  clergy  and  monasticism.  Chris- 
tianity was  also  planted  in  Georgia  and  flourished, 
c.  Abyssinian  Church  planted  in  this  period,  became 
\monophysite  and  so  remains. 

(3)  Among  the  Germans.  Ulfilas  or  Wolf  (311- 
81),  an  Arian,  educated  at  Constantinople,  converted 
the  West  Goths  to  Arian  Christianity  (341  onward),, 
before  they  moved  into  the  Empire,  reducing  the 
Gothic  language  to  writing,  translating  portions  of  the 


of  Church  History.  45 

Bible  into  it,  thus  beginning  a  German  literature.  The 
other  Germanic  tribes,  except  the  Franks,  were  orig- 
|  inally  converted  to  Arianism,  but  had  embraced  ortho- 
dox views  for  the  most  part  by  the  end  of  the  period. 
<  (4)  Jerome  (340-420)  revised  the  Latin  version, 
which  became  the  Bible  of  Western  Christendom  (Vul- 
gate) and  remains  the  Catholic  Bible  to  the  present 
time.  It  has  been  more  widely  used  and  influential 
than  any  other  version. 

II.     THE  CHURCH. 

ITS  OFFICERS,  ORGANIZATION,  COUNCILS,  LAW, 
ORDINANCES. 

1.  ITS  OFFICERS.  (References:  K.  Sec.  45;  S.  iii. 
234-359;  A.  i.  646-63.)  The  people  had  less  and  less 

(i  influence  in  the  selection  of  their  officers,  who  more 
and  more  formed  a  close  corporation,  an  exclusive 
order.  Most  of  them  had  only  such  education  as  they 

/could  pick  up  in  actual  service  or  in  monastic  or  dio- 
cesan schools.  No  theological  schools  in  the  West; 
in  the  East  five,  Alexandria,  Cesarea,  Antioch,  Edessa 
and  Nisibis  (Nestorian).  Several  of  the  greatest 
•fathers  were  educated  in  heathen  schools,  e.  g.,  Basil, 
the  two  Gregories,  Chrysostom.  Celibacy  was  more 
and  more  exalted  and  finally  required  in  the  East  for 
the  bishops,  in  the  West  for  all  clergy  down  to  sub- 
deacon.  In  the  East  clergy  from  the  priest  down  are 
allowed  to  marry  once,  but  not  after  ordination.  This 
led  to  much  sexual  immorality  f  The  number  of 

^  church  officers  was  increased  in  the  large  churches  by 
creation  of  stewards  and  secretaries  to  care  for  prop- 
erty, nurses  and  buriers  of  the  dead.  There  were  also 


46  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

arch-presbyters  and  arch-deacons,  the  latter  standing 
near  the  bishop  and  usually  succeeding  him.  Dea- 
conesses disappeared  in  the  West  about  end  of  period, 
while  they  continued  in  the  East  till  twelfth  century. 
Tonsure  was  introduced, before  end  of  period;  in  East, 

'clergy  wore  full  beard jj in  West  gradually  discarded 
beard  altogether.  A  solemn  investiture  of  bishops 

j  with  the  insignia  of  office  (ring,  crozier  and  pallium) 
was  gradually  introduced.  Clergy  were  freed  from 

^burdens  of  civil  life  and  from  jurisdiction  of  civil 
courts,  and  made  subject  to  ecclesiastical  courts  which 
gradually  grew  up  around  the  bishops.  By  end  of 
period  bishops  had  gained  the  exclusive  right  of  con- 
firming, ordaining  and  consecrating  the  holy  oil ;  had 
attained  great  eminence  in  society  and  the  state.  Em- 
perors now  assumed  right  to  control  the  elections  of 
the  most  important  ones  and  in  some  cases  appointed 
them.  Byzantine  emperors  believed  the  control  of  the 
church  a  part  of  their  rights. 

s  2.  ORGANIZATION.  (References:  N.  i.  393-406;  K. 
Sec.  46;  A.  i.  663-77;  S.  iii.  271-329.)  The  West 
becomes  more  unified  and  centralized  under  leadership 
of  Bishop  of  Rome ;  the  East,  divided  among  four 
patriarchs  and  torn  by  ecclesiastical  rivalry  and  theo- 
logical discussion,  broken  into  several  parties.' 

a.  Patriarchs.    The  episcopate,  already  divided  into 
country  bishops,  city  bishops  and  metropolitans  (arch- 
bishops   in    West),    now    developed    five    patriarchs 
(Alexandria,     Antioch,     Rome,     Constantinople    and 
Jerusalem)  who  had  oversight  over  two  or  more  prov- 
inces, ordained  metropolitans,  conducted  councils,  pub- 
lished decrees  of  councils  and  of  the  Emperors,  etc. 

b.  Roman  Bishop  called  himself  Papa,  and  gradually 
'^  extended  patriarchal  authority  over  most  of  the  West. 


of  Church  History.  47 

Some  conditions  that  helped  him  were :  Rome  was  ( 1 ) 
the  only  patriarchate  in  West;  (2)  capital  city  of  the 
world;  (3)  the  only  apostolic  church  in  the  West; 
(4)  was  thought  to  have  been  founded  by  Peter,  now 
regarded  as  prince  of  the  apostles;  (5)  it  remained 
staunchly  orthodox,  while  the  East  was  torn  by  theolog- 
ical controversy;  (6)  removal  of  the  emperors  from 
Rome ;  (7)  political  confusion  in  West,  due  to  German 
invasions;  (8)  several  great  bishops,  Leo  I  (440-61), 
Gregory  I  (590-604)  and  others. 
^c.  Councils.  (K.  43:2;  A.  i.  677-84;  iii.  65,  66.) 
An  ascending  series  of  councils  was  developed:  (1) 
Diocesan,  frequent;  (2)  Provincial,  semi-annually ; 
(3)  National;  (4)  Patriarchal;  (5)  Ecumenical.  The 
last  three  were  held  irregularly  at  call  of  king,  patri- 
arch or  emperor.  The  Ecumenical,  supposed  to  rep- 

I  resent  all  Christendom,  were  mainly  oriental,  held  near 
Constantinople,  composed  chiefly  of  Greek  bishops, 
using  Greek  language,  engaged  with  Greek  theolog- 
ical questions.  The  earlier  ones  were  called  by  the 
emperor,  while  later  the  call  was  made  in  conjunction 
with  the  pope.  Emperors  ratified  the  decrees,  making 

«  them  laws  of  the  empire;  later  this  was  done  by  the 
pope.  They  exercised  both  judicial  and  legislative 
functions.  The  laity  were  not  represented;  deacons 
and  presbyters  could  deliberate,  but  only  bishops 
voted.  !ln  matters  of  discipline  the  majority  decided ; 
on  faith  and  morals  unanimity  was  required  and  was 
sometimes  attained  by  exclusion  of  the  intractable. 

/  Doctrinal  decisions  (dogmas)  were  regarded  as  in- 
spired and  infallible;  disciplinary  decrees  (canons) 
could  be  changed.  .  These  councils  were  characterized 
by  intrigue  and  violence.  They  were  Nicea  325,  I 


48  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

Constantinople  381,  Ephesus  431,  Chalcedon  451,  II 
Constantinople  553,  III  Constantinople  680,  II  Nicea 
787. 

d.  Ecclesiastical  Courts  and  Canon  Law.  (K.  Sec.  43 : 
3f ;  S.  iii.  353-5.)  During  this  period  a  body  of  church 
law  grew  up  and  was  practically  complete  by  end  of 
period.  It  was  put  together  in  the  West  by  Dionysius 
Exiguus,  c.  500  (later  added  to  by  Isidore  of  Seville), 
and  in  East  (with  some  differences)  by  John  Scholas- 
ticus,  c.  550.  It  consists  of  (a)  Apostolic  Canons, 
origin  unknown,  (b)  Canons  of  the  ecumenical  coun- 
cils, (c)  Decrees  of  several  important  provincial  coun- 
cils, (d)  Some  letters  of  the  more  important  bishops, 
(e)  Ecclesiastical  laws  of  the  emperors.  Violations 
of  canon  law  were  penalized  by  the  state  and  punished 
like  other  crimes.  The  clergy  were  exempt  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  civil  courts  and  law,  being  tried  by 
ecclesiastical  (episcopal)  courts  according  to  canon 
law. 

3.  ORDINANCES  (baptism  and  eucharist)  (N.  i.  425f ; 
K.  Sec.  58;  A.  i.  706-25;  S.  iii.  480-517.)  have  grown 
into  sacraments,  signs  and  mediators  of  inward  grace. 
By  end  of  period  confirmation,  ordination  and  marriage 
iwere  usually  added  to  baptism  and  eucharist  as  sac- 
raments. 

(1)  Baptism.  Infant  baptism  not  universal,  but 
rapidly  spreading;  trine  immersion  in  the  East  and  in 
the  West  outside  of  Spain ;  sprinkling  allowed  only  in 
case  of  sickness;  heretical  baptism,  if  done  in  the  name 
of  the  Trinity,  generally  accepted  after  the  imposition 
of  the  bishop's  hands.  Baptism  of  adults  was  pre- 
ceded by,  and  that  of  children  followed  by  a  course  of 
instruction  which  was  becoming  briefer  and  less  thor-t 


of  Church  History.  49 

ough.  Baptism  was  administered,  if  possible,  at 
Easter,  Pentecost  or  Epiphany,  and  by  end  of  period 
usually  in  a  baptistry.  Ceremonies  preceding  baptism 
were  exorcism,  breathing  on  candidate,  touching  the 
ears  with  the  exclamation  Ephphatha,  making  the 
sign  of  the  cross  on  the  forehead  and  breast  and  giv- 
ing salt;  following  the  ordinance  the  candidate  was 
clothed  in  white  and  given  milk  and  honey.  Baptism 
was  a  saving  ordinance,  removing  the  guilt  of  all  pre- 
ceding sin  and  making  an  indelible  impression  on  the 
soul. 

(2)  Confirmation  consisted  in  anointing  the  fore- 
head, nose,  ear  and  breast  with  consecrated  oil,  and 
the  imposition  of  the  hands  of  the  bishop  (or  priest  in 
East).     It  was  thought  to  complete  baptism  and  con- 
firm its  gracious  effects. 

(3)  Eucharist — "is  both  a  sacrament  wherein  God 
conveys  to  us  a  certain  blessing,  and  a  sacrifice  which 
man  offers  to  God.     As  a  sacrament,  or  the  com- 
munion, it  stands  at  the  head  of  all  sacred  rites ;  as  a 
sacrifice  it  stands  alone."     It  was  growing  to  be  the 
center,  the  holy  of  holies  in  the  worship,     (a)  As  a 
sacrament  the  eucharist  was  not  the  subject  of  con- 
troversy or  church  action  in  this  period ;  hence  various 
shades  of  opinion  existed,  but  it  was  regarded  as  most 
holy  and  as  in  some  sense  containing  the  presence  of 
the  glorified  Christ,  but  was  not  adored.     The  wine 
was  mixed  with  water;  the  Greek  church  used  leav- 
ened, the  Latin  unleavened  bread.     In  North  Africa 
and  the  East  there  was  infant  communion  and  the 
withholding  of  the  cup  from  the  laity.     In  the  pre- 
ceding period  secret  (disciplina  arcani),  the  eucharist 

/now  becomes  public  and  the  center  of  worship,     (b) 


50  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

As  a  sacrifice  it  is  the  most  solemn  mystery  of  the 
church,  the  point  where  the  human  and  divine  best 
meet  and  mingle.  The  Ante-Nicene  fathers  regarded 
the  eucharist  as  a  "thank  offering  of  the  church;  the 
congregation  offering  the  consecrated  elements  of 
bread  and  wine,  and  in  them  itself,  to  God."  As  the 
consecrated  elements  came  to  be  identified  with  Christ, 
it  became  a  sacrifice  of  Christ,  a  daily  unbloody  repeti- 
tion of  the  tragedy  of  Calvary,  the  antitype  of  the 
Mosaic  sacrifice,  offered  only  by  a  priest,  and  is  effica- 
cious for  the  whole  body  of  the  church,  living  and  dead, 
for  whom  prayer  is  made  at  that  time.  The  elaborate 
ceremony  of  consecration  is  very  impressive,  and  af- 
fects all  that  art  can  do  to  stimulate  devotion.  This 
conception  is  complete  in  Gregory  I,  and  henceforth 
,  the  sacrifice  more  and  more  overshadows  the  sacra- 
ment. 

III.     WORSHIP. 
References:    K.  Sees.  55-60;  A.  i.  685-706;  S.  in.  375-599;. 

Questions  relating  to  worship  were  not  discussed  as 
those  in  theology,  and  consequently  worship  was  not 

'as  uniform  as  was  theology;  many  local  differences 
with  broader  variations  between  the  Latin  and  Greek 
churches.  The  practice  of  the  Roman  church  grad- 
ually extended  over  the  entire  West.  Worship  devel- 
ops very  rapidly,  becoming  more  elaborate  and  complex 
in  every  respect  during  this  period. 

1.  PLACE.     There    were    many    and    great    church 

/buildings  from  the  time  of  Constantine  on — chiefly 
basilicas,  oblong  buildings  facing  east  and  west,  but 
also  round  and  polygonal  ones.  Chief  elements  of 


of  Church  History.  51 

basilicas  were  vestibule,  nave,  aisles,  transept,  choir. 
Chief  furniture  was  an  altar  and  a  reading  desk. 
Baptistries  were  sometimes  separate  buildings. 
Churches  ornamented  with  frescoes,  mosaics  and  re- 
liefs of  Christ,  Mary  and  other  saints,  and  symbolic 
'  figures.  Monks  began  to  erect  large  monasteries. 

2.  TIME.  (1)  Weekly  Cycle.  Clergy  and  monks 
kept  seven  hours  of  prayer  daily  (3  A.  M.,  6  A.  M., 
etc.,  to  9  P.  M.)  Wednesday,  Friday  and  sometimes 
Saturday  were  kept  as  partial  fast  days.  Sunday  was 

^  chief  day  of  worship.  Civil  Sunday  begins  with  Con- 
stantine  who  prohibited  manual  labor  in  the  cities, 
judicial  proceedings  and  military  exercises  on  that 
day,  while  the  soldiers,  pagan  and  Christian,  were  re- 
quired to  worship.  (2)  The  Christian  Year  is  almost 
completed  in  this  period,  and  is  intended  to  set  forth 
annually  and  in  pictorial  and  dramatic  form  belief 
in  the  great  facts  of  redemption,  "a  chronological  con- 

Ifession  of  faith."  The  order,  date  and  character  of 
the  celebrations  are  determined  partly  by  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, partly  by  gospel  history,  partly  by  natural 
year,  and  partly  by  pre-existing  heathen  and  Jewish 
festivals,  which  were  adopted  and  adapted.  When 
completed  there  were  three  groups  or  cycles:  Christ- 
mas, Easter  and  Pentecost,  representing  respectively 
(1)  the  birth,  (2)  passion  and  resurrection  of  Christ, 
(3)  the  gift  of  Holy  Spirit,  and  each  preceded  by  pre- 
paratory and  followed  by  completing  ceremonies,  (a) 
Christmas,  December  25th  (closely  related  to  Saturna- 
lia and  other  heathen  festivals  of  that  season),  in  cele- 
bration of  Christ's  birth  first  appears  at  Rome  c.  360.  It 
is  preceded  by  four  (in  East  six)  Advent  Sundays,  and 
is  followed  by  feast  of  the  naming  of  Jesus,  January 


52  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

1st,  and  on  January  6th  Epiphany  (in  East  the  feast 
of  His  baptism  and  of  his  first  miracle,  in  West  feast 
of  the  Three  Kings),  (b)  Easter  (first  Sunday  after 
first  full  moon  after  vernal  equinox),  in  celebration  of 
the  resurrection,  is  preceded  by  forty  days  of  repent- 
ance and  fasting,  beginning  with  Ash  Wednesday. 
Passion  or  Holy  Week  begins  with  Palm  Sunday 
(triumphal  entry),  followed  by  Maundy  Thursday 
(Institution  of  Supper),  Good  Friday  (crucifixion), 
Great  Sabbath  (Jesus  in  grave,  a  favorite  time  for 
baptisms),  Easter  Sunday  (resurrection),  a  day  of 
great  rejoicing.  (c)  Pentecost  (seventh  Sunday 
after  Easter)  was  the  feast  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  The 
whole  period  of  seven  weeks  between  Easter  and 
Pentecost  a  joyous  season,  a  continuous  Sunday  (no 
fasting  or  kneeling  in  prayer).  The  fortieth  day 
(Thursday)  Ascension  day.  After  10th  century  Sun- 
day following  Pentecost  was  celebrated  as  feast  of 
the  Trinity,  and  still  later  the  following  Thursday 
became  Corpus  Christi,  the  feast  of  tran-substantia- 
tion,  thus  completing  the  cycle. 

Gradually  every  day  in  the  year  became  sacred  to 
some  saint  (several  to  different  events  in  the  life  of 
Mary). 

3.  OBJECTS.  Before  end  of  period  there  is  worship 
of  saints,  images,  relics  and  angels.  The  invocation 
of  Mary  (thought  to  have  remained  a  virgin  free  from 
actual,  and  by  some  authors,  original  sin,  to  have 
risen  from  the  dead  and  to  have  been  taken  up  to 
heaven  (assumption),  begins  in  second  half  of  the 
4th  century.  She  became  the  "Mother  of  God," 
"Queen  of  Heaven,"  the  compassionate,  who  moves 
her  Son  to  mercy;  a  sort  of  restoration  of  the  female 


of  Church  History.  53 

divinities  of  the  heathen.  Other  saints — apostles, 
prophets,  martyrs — were  venerated  and  invoked  from 
the  beginning  of  the  5th  century,  so  angels;  patron 
angels  led  to  saints  as  patrons  of  countries,  trades, 
etc.  James  of  Spain,  Andrew  of  Greece,  Luke  of 
Painters,  etc.  Churches  and  chapels  were  built  over 
graves  of  martyrs  and  dedicated  to  saints.  This  de- 
scended from  the  heathen  hero-worship,  and  is  a  sort 
of  refined  polytheism.  In  order  to  avoid  the  heathen 
abuses  that  poured  into  the  church,  the  fathers  in- 
vented distinction  between  douleia,  service  given  to 
saints,  images,  relics,  cross,  crown  and  coat  of  Jesus, 
etc.,  and  latreia,  that  given  to  God.  This  new  idolatry 

I  produces  a  new  mythology — Acta  Sanctorum — lives 
or  stories  of  the  saints,  very  extensive.  Miracles  of 
healing,  immense  traffic  in  relics  (largely  fraudulent)  ; 
pilgrimages  to  holy  places  frequent. 

4.  CONTENT.     Public   worship   now    entirely   litur- 

1  gical,  conducted  by  authorized  officers  only.  Cele- 
bration of  mass  and  Eucharist  was  center  (see  above). 
The  elements  were :  ( 1 )  the  reading  of  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  in  West  arranged  in  collects  or  lessons 
suited  to  the  season  in  the  Christian  year;  (2)  Sing- 
ing psalms  and  an  increasing  number  of  uninspired 
songs;  trained  singers;  (3)  Prayers;  (4)  Preaching 
by  the  bishop.  This  the  golden  age  of  preaching 
among  the  Latin  and  Greek  fathers.  Among  the 
Greeks  were  Chrysostom,  the  "Three  Cappadocians," 
Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  and  others ;  among  the  Latins 
Ambrose,  Augustine  and  others.  Sermons  were  rhe- 
torical, built  on  classical  models. 


54  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

IV.     THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THEOLOGY — 
CONTROVERSIES. 

Reference:    S.   iii.  600-16. 

f  This  was  the  golden  age  of  theological  develop- 
ment and  formulation.  Never  was  Christendom  so 
torn  by  controversy  about  fundamental  things.  Its 
history  is  the  story  of  the  development  of  Christian 

|  truth  under  the  influence  of  classical  culture,  and  speci- 
fically of  philosophy.  The  sources  were  the  Scrip- 
tures including  Apocrypha,  and  tradition  which  de- 
termined the  contents  of  Scriptures  and  interpreted 
them.  The  process  was  controversy,  carried  on  chiefly 
by  the  Greeks  and  eventuated  in  statements  of  doc- 
trine by  ecumenical  councils,  which  were  regarded 
as  inspired,  and  their  acceptance  necessary  to  salva- 
tion. The  councils  were  often  marked  by  intrigue 
and  violence  and  led  to  schisms.  Their  decrees  were 
accepted  as  laws  of  the  empire,  and  were  often  en- 
forced by  the  imperial  power.  The  main  theological 
controversies  were  (1)  Trinitarian,  (2)  Origenistic, 

/  (3)    Christological,    (4)    Anthropological. 

1.  TRINITARIAN  DISCUSSION  CONTINUED — ARIAN- 
ISM.  (References:  N.  i.  324-31;  K.  Sees.  49,  50; 
H.  i.  427-38;  A.  i.  519-54;  S.  iii.  616-98.  Newman, 
Arians  of  the  4th  Century  1838;  Gwatkin,  Studies  in 
Arianism  1882  and  The  Arian  Controversy  1889.) 

The  final  stage  of  the  trintarian  controversy  was 
started  by  the  priest  Arius  at  Alexandria  318.  It 
involved  the  deity  of  Christ  and  the  entire  conception 
of  God.  Arians  held  that  the  Logos  was  the  first 
creation  of  God,  that  He  existed  before  the  incarnation 
but  was  not  eternal ;  that  he  created  all  else  (even  the 


of  Church  History.  55 

Holy  Spirit),  and  was  worthy  of  worship,  but  did  not 
perfectly  comprehend  God  or  perfectly  reveal  Him. 
The  controversy  may  be  divided  into  four  stages,  (1) 
from  318  to  the  temporary  victory  of  orthodoxy  at 
the  Council  of  Nicea  325;  (2)  the  reaction  and 
temporary  victory  of  Arianism  325  to  361 ;  (3)  second 
reaction  and  final  victory  of  orthodoxy  in  the  empire 
361  to  381 ;  (4)  gradual  conversion  of  the  Germans  /» 
to  orthodoxy  extending  to  about  600.  In  general  the  ' 
Germans  and  most  of  the  Greeks  were  Arian,  while  the 
Latins  were  orthodox. 

(1)  The  controversy  started   (318)   at  Alexandria 
and  quickly  spread  to  adjacent  regions.     After  var- 
ious attempts  to  convince  him,  Arius  was  excommuni- 
cated at  Alexandria  321.     After  a  vain  attempt  to  re- 
store harmony  Constantine  called  a  world   (ecumen- 
ical) council  to  settle  the  dispute.     318  bishops  out  of 
a  total  of  1,800  came,  only  seven  of  these  from  the 
West ;  a  Greek  council  almost  wholly.     There  arose 
three    parties,    Arian,     Semi-Arian    and     Orthodox. 
Through  the  influence  of  Athanasius,  a  young  deacon 
of  Alexandria,  and  the  Emperor,  orthodoxy  triumphed 
in  the  Nicene  Creed   (C.  C.  II.  57-61).     It  was  de- 
clared that  Christ  is  truly  God,  one  in  essence  with 
the  Father  while  distinct  in  person.     Arius  was  ban- 
ished, his  books  burned,  and  his  followers  branded  as 
enemies  of  Christianity;  the  beginning  of  the  civil 
punishment  of  heresy. 

(2)  Reaction  soon  set  in,  the  question  became  one 
of  imperial   politics.     Constantine   was  won  over  to 
the  side  of  Arius,  councils  at  Tyre  and  Constantinople 
(335)  condemned  Athanasius  (Bishop  of  Alexandria 
since  328);   he  was   banished    (336).     Arius   would 


56  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

have  been  restored  to  church  fellowship  at  Constanti- 
nople but  for  his  sudden  death  (336).  Of  the  sons  of 
Constantine  Constantius  was  a  fanatical  Arian,  and 
when  he  became  sole  ruler  (350)  he  forced  Arianism 
on  the  entire  empire. 

(3)  But  the  Arians  became  divided  among  them- 
selves.    Julian  recalled  all  bishops.     Orthodoxy  grad- 
ually regained  a  dominant  position,  and  Theodosius 
required  all  his  subjects  to  confess  the  orthodox  faith; 
called  council  of  Constantinople    (381),   which  reaf- 
firmed the  Nicene  Creed  with  some  slight  changes, 
added  a  clause  on  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  then  forcibly 
suppressed  all  Arian  worship. 

(4)  Conversion  of  Germans  to  orthodoxy  can  not 
be  traced. 

With  the  Nicene  Creed  the  Greek  church  rested 
content.  In  the  West  it  was  further  developed  by  the 
addition  to  the  creed  of  the  statement  that  the  Spirit 
proceeded  from  the  Father  and  the  Son  (filioque), 
at  the  council  of  Toledo  (589)  and  by  the  formulation 
of  the  Athanasian  Creed  by  an  unknown  author  of 
the  5th  century  }(C.  C.  II.  66-71). 

2.  ORIGENISTIC  CONTROVERSY.    (References:  S.  iii. 
698-705;  A.  i.  554-63;  K.  Sec.  51;  N.  i.  332-5;  H.  i. 
451-52.)     This  controversy  was  over  the  question  of 
the  orthodoxy  of  Origen,  was  personal  and  exceed- 
ingly bitter,  but  unimportant  in  the  development  of 
doctrine. 

3.  CHRISTOLOGICAL  CONTROVERSIES.   (References:  N. 
i.  335-58;  K.  Sec.  52;  H.  i.  439-50;  A.  i.  590-645;  S. 
iii.  705-83.)   The  question  of  the  person  of  Christ  had 
been  more  or  less  involved  in  all  preceding  discus- 
sions of  Him,  some  denying  the  reality  or  complete- 


of  Church  History.  57 

ness  of  His  divinity,  others  the  reality  or  completeness 
of  His  humanity.  It  had  now  been  officially  decided 
that  He  was  very  God.  It  remained  then  to  determine 
whether  He  was  truly  human,  and  if  so  to  determine 
^the  relation  between  the  human  and  the  divine  natures. 
Christians  had  generally  regarded  Him  as  both  man 
and  God,  but  there  had  been  no  sharp  definitions. 
The  problem  was  precisely  the  opposite  of  that  in  the 
preceding  controversy.  There  it  was  to  find  a  plu- 
rality of  persons  in  a  unity  of  essence  or  nature ;  here 
it  was  to  preserve  unity  of  person  with  a  duality  of 
natures.  How  can  a  human  and  a  divine  nature  be 
united  into  one  personality?  The  former  dealt  with 
the  pre-existent  Logos,  the  nature  and  inter-relation 
of  the  divine  persons  in  eternity ;  the  latter  with  the 
person  of  the  historic  Christ  as  he  lived  on  earth. 

Two  general  tendencies  existed:  the  Antiochan, 
which  emphasized  the  human  nature  and  held  the  two 
natures  apart,  and  the  Alexandrine,  which  emphasized 
the  divine  nature  and  the  unity  of  person.  This  con- 
troversy arose  in  the  midst  of  the  former  one,  passing 
through  several  stages,  and  lasting  over  three  centu- 
ries. 

(1)  Apollinarianism  (362-381)  developed  by  Apol- 
linarius  of  Laodicea  before  the  close  of  the  preceding 
controversy.  Origen  had  asserted  that  Christ  had  a 
human  soul,  while  Arius  had  declared  that  the  Logos 
was  joined  to  a  human  body  only.  Apollinarius  be- 
lieved that  man  was  a  trichotomy  (body,  soul  and 
spirit),  and  asserted  that  Christ  had  human  body  and 
soul,  while  the  place  of  the  human  spirit  was  supplied 
by  the  Logos,  thus  denying  the  completeness  of  his 
humanity ;  only  thus  could  Christ  be  sinless  and  pro- 


58  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

vide  an  adequate  atonement  for  the  race.  This  view 
was  condemned  by  several  provincial  councils  and 
finally  by  the  Council  of  Constantinople  381.  By 
this  action  the  church  negatively  asserted  that 
Christ's  human  nature  was  complete,  and  henceforth 
the  only  question  was  one  of  relation  between  the  two 
natures.  The  Apollinarians  were  persecuted,  later 
united  with  the  Monophysites. 

(2)  Nestorianism  was  started  at  Constantinople  by 
Nestorius  (monk,  priest  of  Antioch,  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople 428,  an  eloquent  heresy  hunter),  who  was 
educated  by  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  the  real  author 
of  the  views.  He  objected  to  the  term  "Mother  of 
God"  (theotokos)  applied  to  Mary,  regarding  the 
two  natures,  which  worked  harmoniously,  so  distinct 
as  almost  to  involve  double  personality.  Christ  was 
God  and  man,  not  God-man.  He  was  opposed  by 
Cyril  of  Alexandria,  condemned  by  synods  at  Rome 
and  Alexandria  430.  Council  of  Ephesus  (431),  called 
by  the  two  emperors,  was  very  violent,  split,  reached 
no  conclusion.  In  433  a  compromise  was  reached  by 
which  Nestorius  was  banished,  his  views  condemned, 
"Mother  of  God"  approved.  His  followers,  driven 
out  of  the  empire,  fled  to  Persia;  favored  by  Persian 
kings,  in  498  they  renounced  all  connection  with  the 
orthodox  church  of  the  empire,  and  have  since  re- 
mained independent  of  both  the  Greek  and  Roman 
churches.  For  several  centuries  they  flourished, 
spread  to  Arabia  and  India  (where  they  are  called 
Thomas  Christians)  and  China.  They  brought  many 
Mongols  to  Christianity,  but  were  almost  exterminated 
by  Tamerlane.  They  still  exist  in  the  valleys  of  Ar- 
menia and  Kurdistan,  with  a  patriarch  on  the  border 


of  Church  History.  59 

of  Turkey  and  Persia.  They  differ  from  the  Greek 
church  in  that  they  refuse  to  recognize  the  council  of 
Ephesus,  to  worship  Mary  or  use  images,  deny  the 
doctrine  of  purgatory  and  transubstantiation  and  have 
more  simple  worship. 

(3)  Eutychianism  or  Monophysitism  was  a  reaction 
against  Nestorianism,  a  further  development  of  Cyril's 
views.  Eutyches,  an  aged  archimandrite  of  Constan- 
tinople, emphasized  the  divine  in  Christ,  denying  that 
Christ  had  two  natures  after  the  incarnation.  The 
human  nature  is  so  assimilated  by  the  Logos  that  His 
body  is  not  of  the  same  nature  with  ours.  He  was  of 

I  two  natures,  but  in  only  one.  "All  human  attributes 
are  transferred  to  the  one  subject,  the  humanized 
Logos/'  so  that  God  suffered  and  died.  He  was  op- 
posed by  Theodoret,  by  Domnus,  Patriarch  of  Antioch, 
and  Flavian,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  while  he 
was  supported  by  Dioscurus,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria. 
Both  parties  appealed  to  the  court  of  Constantinople 
and  to  Leo,  Bishop  of  Rome.  Eutyches  was  deposed 
by  a  local  synod  at  Constantinople  (448),  while  Leo 
wrote  to  Flavian  his  famous  dogmatic  letter  opposing 
this  view.  The  council  called  by  the  Emperor  Theo- 
dosius  II  at  Ephesus  449  (Robber  Synod),  held  under 
presidency  of  Dioscurus,  was  very  violent,  deposed 
Theodoret,  Flavian  and  Leo,  who  protested  vigorously. 
The  new  emperor,  Marcian,  with  the  Western  Em- 
peror, called  a  new  council  (Chajcedon,  451),  which 
annulled  the  acts  of  Ephesus,  deposed  Dioscurus  and 
other  leaders  of  the  Eutychians,  and  defined  the  person 
of  Christ  as  composed  of  two  natures,  complete  and 

'  unmixed  but  inseparable  in  one  person  (C.  C.  II. 
62-5),  while  the  emperor  ordered  all  Eutychians  to 


60  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

be  banished  and  their  writings  burned.  This  creed 
contains  the  Christology  of  the  Greek,  Latin  and  Prot- 
estant churches. 

The  controversy  (henceforth  called  Monophysite) 
continued  with  great  violence.  The  Emperor  Zeno 
issued  (482)  a  formula  of  Concord  (Henoticon), 
which  sought  to  reconcile  the  two  parties  by  propos- 
ing the  avoidance  of  disputed  expressions,  the  con- 
demnation of  both  Nestorianism  and  Eutychianism, 
thus  tacitly  setting  aside  the  Chalcedonian  creed. 

This  caused  the  Bishop  of  Rome  to  renounce  com- 
munion with  the  East  (484),  and  the  schism  continued 
35  years  till  519,  when  the  Emperor  Justin  canceled  the 
Henoticon  and  banished  its  adherents. 

In  the  hope  of  reconciling  the  Monophysites  to  the 
church  Justinian  issued  a  decree  (544)  condemning 
Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  the  real  author  of  Nes- 
torianism, the  writings  of  Theodoret  against  Cyril, 
and  the  letter  of  Ibas,  Bishop  of  Edessa,  to  the  Per- 
sian Bishop  Maris  complaining  of  the  outrages  of 
Cyril's  party  in  Edessa,  the  last  two  having  been  de- 
clared orthodox  by  the  council  of  Chalcedon.  This 
decree,  accepted  in  the  East,  was  violently  opposed  in 
the  West.  To  end  the  controversy  Justinian  called 
fifth  ecumenical  council  at  Constantinople  (553),  which 
condemned  the  three  chapters,  thus  confirming  the 
decree  of  the  emperor.  The  acceptance  of  these  de- 
crees by  the  Bishop  of  Rome  led  Africa,  Illyria  and 
North  Italy  to  renounce  fellowship  with  him,  and  the 
schism  continued  till  Gregory  I. 

The  Monophysites  founded  independent  churches 
hostile  to  the  Catholic  church  and  to  the  empire,  and 
in  seventh  century  most  of  them  assisted  the  Moslems. 


of  Church  History.  61 

(1)  The  Jacobites  in  Syria,  Mesopotamia  and  Baby- 
lonia, named  after  Jacob  Baradai  or  Zanzalus,  who 
(541-78)  organized  them.  A  feeble  remnant  is  now 
found  in  Turkey  and  Persia.  (2)  The  Copts  of 
Egypt  have  since  536  had  a  "Patriarch  of  Alexandria," 
who  commonly  resides  at  Cairo  with  jurisdiction  over 
Egypt,  Nubia  and  Abyssinia.  They  practice  circum- 
cision and  observe  the  Jewish  law  of  meats.  (3)  The 
Abyssinian  church,  a  daughter  of  the  former,  rejects 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  observes  the  Jewish  Sab- 
bath and  also  Sunday,  Jewish  law  of  meats,  and  has 
other  peculiarities.  (4)  The  Armenians  fell  away 
from  the  Greek  church  595  and  adopted  Monophysite 
creed.  Some  of  them  have  joined  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  recently. 

(4)  Monothelite  (one  will)  Controversy,  the  last 
phase  of  the  long  and  bitter  Christological  controversy, 
was  the  result  of  an  attempt  by  the  emperor  Hera- 
clius  to  restore  the  Monophysites  to  the  unity  of  the 
church  by  asserting  one  will  in  Christ.  The  patriarchs 
of  Constantinople,  Antioch  and  Alexandria  and  Pope 
Honorius  were  won  over  to  this  view,  and  many  Mono- 
physites were  restored  to  the  church,  but  the  patriarch 
of  Jerusalem  condemned  it  634.  In  638  the  emperor 
issued  a  decree  (the  Ecthesis)  imposing  Monothelit- 
ism  on  all.  The  popes  and  various  provincial  coun- 
cils now  condemned  it,  and  the  controversy  waxed 
warm.  The  Emperor  Constans  II,  in  a  decree  (the 
Typus),  forbade  the  teaching  of  either  view  (648), 
and  had  the  pope,  when  he  opposed,  brought  in  chains 
to  Constantinople  and  banished.  The  next  emperor 
called  sixth  ecu.  council  (1  Trullan,  680)  (C.  C.  II. 
72f),  at  Constantinople,  which  affirmed  two  wills,  con- 


62  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

demned  the  Monothelites  as  accursed  heretics  (among 
them  Pope  Honorius)  ;  this  action  was  approved  by 
Pope  Leo  II.  Practically  the  whole  Christian  world 
accepted  this  decision,  and  thus  ended  the  long  con- 
troversy. Christ  had  two  natures,  human  and  divine, 
both  complete,  unmixed  but  inseparably  united;  and 
two  wills. 

4.  ANTHROPOLOGY — PELAGIAN  CONTROVERSY  (412- 
529  A.  D.)  (References:  H.  i.  455-61 ;  A.  i.  571-90; 
K.  Sec.  53;  N.  i.  359-71 ;  S.  iii.  783-870.) 

Hitherto  man's  nature  had  been  little  discussed,  but 
the  freedom  of  the  will  and  moral  responsibility  had 
been  emphasized  against  the  types  of  philosophy  then 
prevalent.  This  controversy  was  largely  Western 
and  Latin.  The  questions  at  issue  were  never  decided 
by  ecumenical  councils  and  hence  are  still  open. 
There  is  no  orthodox  anthropology.  The  two  ex- 
tremes were  represented  by  Pelagius,  a  British  monk 
(also  Celestius  and  Julian  of  Eclanum),  and  Augus- 
tine, Bishop  of  Hippo.  Both  systems  were  fairly 
complete  and  logical,  while  standing  in  sharp  opposi- 
tion. Pelagius  emphasized  the  goodness  and  ability 
of  man,  Augustine  the  ruin  of  man  and  the  continu- 
ous sovereign  activity  of  God.  Some  of  the  leading 
contrasts  were  as  follows:  (1)  Primitive  man.  P. 
Man  was  innocent,  endowed  with  absolute  free  will, 
but  mortal.  A.  He  was  innocent,  endowed  with  a  will 
free  but  inclined  to  good,  and  capable  by  continuous 
obedience  of  becoming  unable  to  sin,  and  immortal. 
(2)  The  Fall.  P.  It  brought  spiritual  death  to  Adam, 
but  affected  his  posterity  only  as  an  example.  A. 
It  brought  spiritual  and  physical  death  to  Adam  and 
through  him  to  the  entire  race,  enslaved  the  will. 


of  Church  History.  63 

(3)  Man  After  the  Fall.  P.  Every  man  enters  the 
world  innocent  and  free  as  Adam  was  before  the  fall, 
and  falls  into  sin  by  example  only.  A.  Every  man 
comes  into  the  world  with  a  corrupt  nature  (inherited 
guilt),  a  will  enslaved  to  evil,  incapable  of  real  right- 
eousness. (4)  Will.  P.  It  is  always  free,  equally 
capable  of  choosing  good  and  evil.  A.  It  was  free 
before  the  fall  and  inclined  to  righteousness,  but  with 
the  fall  it  lost  its  freedom  to  righteousness,  is  enslaved 
to  evil,  and  can  choose  only  civil  righteousness.  (5) 
Sin.  P.  It  is  an  act,  flowing  from  the  will,  not  the 
nature  of  each  individual ;  therefore  men  are  not  neces- 
sarily sinners,  and  some  have  lived  without  sin.  A. 
Sin  inheres  in  human  nature  (original  sin)  and  event- 
uates in  sinful  actions  (actual  sin).  Hence  every  man, 
except  Christ,  is  necessarily  a  sinner  from  birth.  (6) 
Grace.  P.  It  is  the  natural  endowment  of  the  indi- 
vidual with  will,  intellect,  etc.  A.  It  is  the  operation 
of  God's  truth  and  Spirit  by  which  the  spiritual  life 
is  begun,  continued  and  completed.  Without  it  man 
can  neither  repent  nor  believe.  Redeeming  grace  is 
irresistible  in  its  operation  on  the  elect.  (7)  Election. 
P.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  unconditional  election. 
A.  Election  is  eternal,  absolute  and  unconditional. 
(8)  Infant  Baptism.  P.  It  is  a  good  thing  but  un- 
necessary to  salvation  of  infants.  A.  It  is  necessary 
to  salvation  of  infants  since  they  are  sinners,  and  bap- 
tism is  the  church's  only  means  of  regeneration.  Some 
of  those  regenerated  in  baptism  might  and  did  fall 
away,  but  the  elect  could  not. 

Pelagians  were  condemned  by  a  synod  at  Carthage 
(412),  and  by  Pope  Innocent  (416)  ;  were  supported 
by  synods  at  Jerusalem  (415)  and  Diospolis,  and  at 


64  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

first  by  Pope  Zosimus;  after  a  general  council  of  the 
African  churches  had  condemned  them  (418)  this  pope 
concurred.  They,  but  not  their  doctrines,  were  con- 
demned by  council  of  Carthage  (431).  Neither  sys- 
tem won  general  acceptance.  Before  the  death  of 
Augustine  there  began  attempts  to  modify  one  system 
by  the  other,  chiefly  by  a  school  in  South  France. 
John  Cassian,  Vincent  of  Lerins  and  others  rejected 
Pelagianism  but  modified  many  of  Augustine's  posi- 
tions. They  were  known  as  Massilians  (from  the 
location  of  their  monastery),  and  later  semi-Pelagians. 
The  discussion  continued  for  a  century,  and  finally  re- 
sulted in  a  victory  for  moderate  Augustinianism  at 
the  Synod  of  Orange  529,  but  the  Catholic  church 
still  continues  to  be  divided  on  the  subject. 

V.     CHRISTIAN  LIFE — MORALS,  DISCIPLINE, 
MONASTICISM. 

References:  K.  Sees.  61,  44;  A.  i.  725-65;  S.  iii.  107-233, 
356-74;  Lecky,  History  European  Morals,  Vol.  II. 

There  was  of  course  development  during  the  period 
and  variations  from  one  locality  to  another.  There 
was  improvement  in  some  directions,  decline  in  others. 

Iln  general  we  may  say  that  the  condition  of  society 
was  improved  by  the  church,  while  the  life  of  the 
church  was  corrupted  by  the  world. 

1.  IMPROVEMENTS.  More  humane  laws  in  the  em- 
pire, abolition .  of  crucifixion,  of  gladiatorial  games 
404  (Telemachus),  establishment  of  educational  and 
charitable  institutions  (asylums,  hospitals,  etc.),  im- 
provement of  marriage  and  divorce  laws,  elevation  of 
women  and  children,  amelioration  of  slavery,  and 


of  Church  History.  65 

encouragement  of  manumission,  care  for  the  poor, 
widows,  orphans  and  the  sick. 

2.  POINTS    OF    DECLINE.      Frightful    division    and 
strife,   brutal   polemics,   persecution   of   heathen   and 
Christian  opponents,  decline  in  personal  morals,  sup- 
erstition,  purgatory    (5th   century),   masses   for   the 
dead;  luxury  and  pomp,  interference  of  the  Byzan- 
tine court  in  religious  affairs. 

3.  DISCIPLINE  against  heresy  was   strict  and  was 
executed  by  the  state,  while  as  to  morals  it  was  re-  *" 
laxed,  at  the  same  time  extended  to  private  offenses. 
Confession  of  secret  sins  privately  to  a  specially  ap- 
pointed priest  began  to  be  recommended  and  intro- 
duced here  and  there,  but  as  yet  was  not  required  as 

a  prerequisite  of  communion.  The  church  imposed 
certain  penalties  in  the  form  of  fasts,  prayers,  alms, 
etc.,  for  each  offense.  Protests  against  the  growing 
laxness  caused  several  schisms  (Donatist,  Audians, 
etc.).  There  was  zeal  for  purity  of  doctrine  and  in- 
difference to  purity  of  life,  "hatred  for  heresy  and 
laxity  of  morals." 

4.  MONASTICISM  arose  frorh   (1)   Heathenism,   (2) 
Judaism  or  (3)  Christianity.     It  has  three  forms,(l) 
the  Anchorite  or  Hermit,   (2)   the  Cenobite  or  com- 
munity, and  (3)  the  Order,  or  union  of  communities. 
Women  belonged  to  the  last  two  kinds  only.     Mon- 
asticism  arose  in  Egypt,  where  conditions  of  weather, 
temperament  and  religious  ideas  were  favorable,  and 
spread   thence   to   the   whole   Christian   world.     The 
motives  were  various — flight  from  corrupt  and  cor- 
rupting world,  from  an  oppressive  church,  from  temp- 
tations, from  work  and  the  duties  of  society.     The 
first  (Anchorite)  was  largely  confined  to  the  East,  and 


66  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

was  the  ne  plus  ultra  of  freedom.  The  other  forms 
lived  a  carefully  regulated  communal  life,  simple,  act- 
ive, religious.  It  was  regarded  as  the  highest — the  reli- 
gious life — and  the  monks  were  called  religious — regu- 
lar clergy,  in  distinction  from  the  ordinary  (secular) 
clergy.  The  monks  were  at  first  laymen,  but  later 
were  counted  among  the  clergy,  and  the  monasteries 
became  seminaries  out  of  which  came  priests,  bishops, 
etc.  At  first  ordinary  costume  was  worn,  but  later 
tonsure  and  distinctive  dress  was  adopted.  Monas- 
teries produced  both  good  and  evil  effects.  (a) 
Good.  They  contained  the  best  Christians,  produced 
missionaries,  scholars;  were  schools,  publishing 
houses,  hospitals,  hospices,  refuges  from  sin  and  dan- 
ger, taught  agriculture,  architecture,  labor,  were 
nearly  always  on  side  of  orthodoxy,  (b)  Evil  Ef- 
fects. They  withdrew  the  best  people  from  society 
and  marriage,  created  a  double  standard  of  morality 
and  exalted  the  false  standard,  made  salvation  depend 
upon  outward  asceticism,  fostered  superstition,  often 
became  frightfully  corrupt.  Monks  took  the  three- 
fold vow  of  personal  poverty  (communal  property 
was  allowed),  chastity  (including  renunciation  of  mar- 
riage), and  obedience  to  superiors.  These  vows  were 
irrevocable.  At  first  free  from  the  bishops,  they  were 
gradually  brought  under  episcopal  jurisdiction.  Later 
(from  10th  century  on)  they  were  largely  removed 
from  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  to  that  of  the  pope. 
(1)  Asceticism  developed  before  end  of  2d  century, 
and  the  first  Anchorites  appeared  before  end  of  3d. 
The  prototypes,  and  most  celebrated  were  Paul  of 
Thebes  and  Anthony  (3d  and  4th  centuries)  in  Egypt, 
Hilarius  in  Palestine,  and  Simon  (Stylite)  in  Syria  in 
5th  century. 


of  Church  History.  67 

(2)  The  Cenobite  form  was  established  by  Pachom- 
ius  on  the  island  of  Tabernae  in  the  Nile  in  325,  and 
was  soon  extended  to  women.     He  became  abbot  or 
archimandrite,  and  wrote  the  first  monastic  rule.   This 
form  was  recommended  by  almost  all  of  the  leading 
fathers  who  belonged  to  it,  was  carried  by  Ephraim 
to  Mesopotamia,  by  Eustathius  to  Armenia  and  Paph- 
lagonia,  by  Basil  to  Pontus  and  Cappadocia.    The  latter 
wrote  an  improved  rule  which  is  still  in  use  in  the 
East. 

Athanasius  introduced  (340)  monasticism  into 
Rome,  whence  it  spread  over  the  Western  world,  being 
recommended  by  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Martin  of 
Tours,  Jerome  and  others.  Here  it  was  less  fanatical, 
better  organized  and  more  useful  than  in  the  East. 

(3)  The  first  Order,  the  Benedictine,  was  founded 
by  Benedict  of  Nursia   (480-543)   at  Monte  Cassino 
in  529.    His  rule  (Henderson  274-314)  superseded  all 
former  rules  in  the  West,  and  was  the  model  of  all 
later   ones.     Under  this   rule  the   church   reared   its 
scholars,  authors,  missionaries,  saints,  artists,  bishops, 
cardinals,  popes.     The  cultivation  of  learning  was  in- 
troduced by  Cassiodorus  528  on.     The  opponents  of 
monasticism  were  few — Jovinian,  Helvidius,  Vigilan- 
tius,  Aerius. 

VI.     LITERATURE  AND  AUTHORS. 
References:    K.  Sees.  47,  48;  S.  iii.  871-1028. 

During  this  period  Christianity  completely  con- 
quered the  literary  world,  Pagan  literature  ceased. 
It  was  chiefly  in  Greek  and  Latin,  but  some  was  in 
Syriac,  Armenian,  Coptic  and  (translation)  Gothic. 


68  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

It  is  entirely  theological,  for  the  most  part  polemical, 
often  bitter  and  brutal;  but  there  is  profound  theo- 
logical speculation,  exegetical  studies,  sermons,  history, 
lives  of  saints  for  popular  reading.  The  three  main 
schools  or  types  were  the  Alexandrian,  the  Antiochan 
and  the  Western.  The  output  of  literature  was 
enormous. 


of  Church  History.  69 


BOOK  III 

THE  MIDDLE  (DARK)  AGES,  c.  600  TO  c.  1517. 
AGE  OF  FAITH  AND  UNITY. 

INTRODUCTION. 

In  general  characteristics  this  period  is  sharply  dis- 
tinguished from  the  preceding  and  following.  The 
political  separation  of  the  East  from  the  West  was 
followed  by  an  increasing  religious  estrangement, 
finally  resulting  in  division  in  the  eleventh  century. 

( 1 )  In  the  East.  Mohammedanism  rose  as  a  mighty" 
religious  and  political  power  early  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, quickly  rent  North  Africa,  Egypt,  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor   from   the   empire   and   subdued   Persia.     The 
empire  continued  to  shrink  and  decay  until  it  was 
finally  extinguished  by  the  Turks  by  the  capture  of 
Constantinople  1453.     The  church,  without  a  strong 
centralized   government,   utterly    subservient   to   civil 
power,  oppressed  by  Mohammedanism,  fell  into  com- 
plete stagnation.     All  intellectual  life  ceased,  and  its 
only  missionary   activity   was   the  conversion   of  the 
Russians  and  other  Slavs  in  9th  and  10th  centuries.    / 

(2)  In    the    West.       Settled    kingly    governments 
gradually  rose  on  the  ruins  of  the  empire,  Mohamme- 
danism was  forced  back  into  Spain,  and  a  new  deluge 
of  northern  barbarians    (Northmen)   were  converted 
and  civilized.     The   empire   was   revived  by   Charle- 
magne and  the  Franks    (800),  and  during  much  of 
the  middle  ages  its  power  was  great  in  West  Europe, 
without,  however,  interfering  seriously  with  the  ex- 


70  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

istence  and  development  of  national  governments. 
Feudalism  as  a  social,  economic  and  political  system 
preserved  a  measure  of  local  independence,  while  the 
crusades  unified  the  people  and  elevated  royalty  and 
the  papacy.  Religiously,  it  was  a  period  of  great 
activity.  All  of  Western  Europe,  the  entire  Teutonic 
part  of  the  race,  was  Christianized,  dissent  disap- 
peared, the  Western  church  was  unified  c.  8th  century, 
and  the  whole  was  brought  under  the  bishop  of  Rome. 
Canon  law  and  the  ecclesiastical  courts  became  the 
rivals  of  civil  law  and  civil  courts ;  the  Roman  Curia 
the  great  court  of  appeal  for  Christendom.  The 
Bishop  of  Rome  became  the  mightiest  potentate  of 
the  world.  In  the  long  struggle  for  supremacy  be- 
tween the  papacy  and  the  empire,  both  powers  were 
greatly  weakened  towards  the  end  of  the  period.  In 
the  12th  century  dissent  reappeared,  and,  despite  the 
development  of  the  Inquisition  for  its  suppression, 
continued  to  gather  strength  to  the  end  of  the  period. 
The  church  unfolded  remarkable  intellectual  activity 
(scholasticism),  a  rich  monastic  life,  produced  won- 
derful architectural  and  artistic  beauties.  Universities 
arose  at  all  the  great  centers  and  soon  dominated  the 
intellectual  life  of  the  world;  Monks  were  the  pro- 
fessors, artists  and  authors  of  the  time. 


of  Church  History.  71 

A.  EASTERN  CHRISTIANITY  TO   1453. 
(A)     THE  HOLY  ORTHODOX  EASTERN  CHURCH. 
References:    K.  Sees.  66-71,  73;  M.  ii.  3-29. 
I.     EXTERNAL  HISTORY. 

1.  POLITICAL  HISTORY.  At  close  of  preceding  per- 
iod the  empire  was  weak  and  torn  by  factions.  It 
never  recovered  its  former  glory  and  power.  Strug- 
gle with  internal  and  external  enemies  continued  to 
weaken  it  and  reduce  its  territory  till  the  capture  of 
Constantinople  by  the  Turks  (1453),  when  it  ceased  to 
exist. 

2.  MOHAMMEDANISM. 

References:  N.  i.  431-4;  S.  iv.  143-201;  K.  Sec.  65,  81;  H. 
i.  522-37;  A.  ii.  191-206. 

Islam,  founded  by  Mohammed  (571-632),  is  a  fatal- 
istic monotheism,  of  which  Mohammed  was  the  last 
and  greatest  prophet.  Its  Bible,  produced  wholly  by 
Mohammed,  is  the  Koran.  Islam  recognizes  good 
and  bad  angels,  a  sensual  heaven,  permits  polygamy, 
missionary  operations  with  the  sword,  forbids  intoxi- 
cating drinks.  As  a  political  system  it  was  carried 
by  the  sword,  over  the  whole  eastern  world.  Jeru- 
salem fell  637,  all  Syria  by  639,  Egypt  by  641,  all 
North  Africa  by  711,  when  it  crossed  into  Spain, 
which  was  overrun  by  713 ;  but  it  was  turned  back  at 
Tours  732.  Eastward  it  had  subdued  Persia  and  ex- 
tended to  the  Indus.  In  Asia  Minor  and  Southeastern 
Europe  it  gradually  encroached  upon  the  empire  until 
the  capture  of  Canstantinople  1453.  In  the  meantime 


72  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

it  had  split  up  into  two  great  religious  parties  and 
many  political  divisions.  To  heathen  it  gave  the  al- 
ternative of  conversion  or  the  sword;  to  Christians 
conversion,  tribute  or  the  sword.  It  destroyed  prop- 
erty, appropriated  the  churches  for  mosques  and  op- 
pressed the  Christians,  many  of  whom  became  Mo- 
hammedans. 

3.  DIVISION  BETWEEN  EASTERN  AND  WESTERN 
CHURCHES. 

References:    K.  Sec.  67;  H.  i.  538-45;  S.  iv.  304-25. 

Before  close  of  last  period  considerable  differences 
in  doctrine  and  practice  had  been  developed,  and  sharp 
rivalries  between  Rome  and  Constantinople  had  caused 
friction  and  bitterness.  The  differences  continued  to 
increase;  for,  while  the  East  became  stationery,  the 
West  continued  to  develop.  The  differences  were  de- 
clared to  be  doctrinal  and  a  bar  to  fellowship  in  867, 
and  in  1054  the  two  churches  mutually  excommuni- 
cated each  other  and  the  schism  was  complete.  Apart 
from  constitution  the  differences  do  not  seem  to  be 
great.  Eastern  Church  permits  marriage  of  clergy  up 
to  the  priest,  the  West  does  not;  in  West  priests 
shave,  in  East  do  not;  the  West  uses  unleavened,  the 
East  leavened  bread ;  the  West  uses  images  in  worship, 
the  East  only  flat  surfaces;  the  West  inserted  filioque 
in  the  Nicene  Creed,  East  rejected  it;  East  practiced 
trine  immersion,  the  West  any  mode.  Several  ineffec- 
tual attempts  at  reunion,  notably  at  Councils  of  Lyons 
(1274)  and  Florence  (1439),  were  followed  by  com- 
plete cessation  of  such  efforts  after  fall  of  Constanti- 
nople. The  two  churches  have  remained  hostile  till  to- 


of  Church  History.  73 

day.  The  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  exercises  spirit- 
ual primacy  and  jurisdiction  over  all  orthodox  subjects 
of  the  Turkish  Empire.  His  election  by  the  synod  must 
be  confirmed  by  the  Sultan.  The  Russian,  Greek,  and 
some  other  orthodox  Eastern  churches  are  now  inde- 
pendent of  Constantinople. 

4.  MISSIONS. 
References:    K.  i.  Sec.  73;  A.  ii.  235-52. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  period  Slavs  poured  into 
the  provinces  of  Greece  and  for  a  time  rent  them  from 
the  empire  and  Christianity.  By  the  middle  of  the 
9th  century  they  had  been  Christianized  and  reunited 
to  the  empire.  About  850  the  Monk  Cyril  was  sent 
upon  request  to  the  Chazars  in  the  Crimea.  The  en- 
tire kingdom  was  soon  converted.  In  861  the  Bul- 
garian king  and  people  were  converted  by  Cyril  and 
his  brother  Methodius,  but  in  866  for  political  reasons 
they  joined  the  Roman  Church.  Since  then  Bulgaria 
has  been  under  the  Greeks,  the  Tartars,  the  Turks 
and  has  been  independent. 

The  Christianizing  of  the  Russians  was  begun  about 
850  by  the  Greeks,  and  was  completed  in  about  150 
years,  Vladimir  making  Christianity  the  official  re- 
ligion in  988.  The  Metropolitan  of  Kiev  was  primate 
of  Russia  under  the  suzerainty  of  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople.  The  center  of  government  was 
moved  to  Moscow  in  1328,  and  in  1589  the  jurisdiction 
of  Constantinople  was  thrown  off. 

Cyril  and  Methodius  also  Christianized  Moravia  and 
Bohemia,  reduced  the  Slavic  language  to  writing,  and 
laid  the  foundation  for  Slavic  literature. 


74  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

II.     INTERNAL  HISTORY. 

1.  ATTEMPTED    REFORM    OF    WORSHIP — ICONOCLASM 
(A.  D.  726-842). 

References:  N.  i.  386-92;  K.  Sec.  66;  H.  i.  507-21;  A.  ii. 
206-22;  S.  iv.  447-65. 

Image  worship,  both  East  and  West,  had  grown 
beyond  all  bounds  by  eighth  century.  Opposition  by 
Jews,  Mohammedans,  Monophysites  and  a  few  ortho- 
dox Christians.  During  the  long  and  bloody  contro- 
versy the  reform  in  the  East  seemed  twice  to  be  vic- 
torious, but  each  time  was  defeated  by  a  woman.  For 
both  political  and  religious  reasons  the  Emperor  Leo 
the  Isaurian  (726)  forbade  the  worship  of  images, 
and  (730)  ordered  them  removed  from  the  churches 
and  destroyed.  By  the  help  of  the  army  these  decrees 
were  executed  with  great  violence.  Germanus,  Pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople,  was  deposed,  and  most  of 
the  monks  who  supported  image  worship  were  chased 
out  of  the  empire.  In  754  a  council  at  Constantinople 
declared  against  images,  and  the  opposition  continued 
till  780.  In  that  year  Irene  became  virtual  empress 
because  of  the  minority  of  her  son  Constantine  VI. 
She  called  a  synod  in  787  in  Nicea,  which  restored 
images  to  the  churches,  making  the  distinction  between 
the  adoration  of  images  and  the  worship  of  God. 
They  remained  till  Leo  V  (813-20)  started  a  second 
crusade  which  lasted  till  842,  when  Theodora,  the  re- 
gent, again  restored  them  to  the  churches.  Since  then 
they  have  held  undisputed  sway  in  the  Greek  church. 

The  reform  was  largely  inoperative  in  the  West. 
The  pope  was  the  constant  and  determined  friend  of 
images.  In  731  he  excommunicated  the  iconoclasts. 


of  Church  History.  75 

The  emperor  responded  by  cutting  off  all  his  reve- 
nues in  South  Italy  and  annexing  the  churches  of 
Illyria  to  Constantinople.  But  the  pope  triumphed, 
and  this  controversy  shook  Italy  entirely  loose  from 
the  empire.  Charlemagne  opposed  image  worship 
(Caroline  books),  and  a  synod  of  German  bishops 
(794)  condemned  it,  but  this  caused  no  cessation. 
In  fact,  the  development,  much  freer  in  the  West  than 
in  the  East,  has  never  been  seriously  disturbed  except 
by  the  Reformation.  Since  this  controversy  both  the 
Eastern  and  Western  churches  have  made  the  distinc- 
tion between  the  veneration  (veneratio,  proskunesis, 
douleia)  of  images  and  the  worship  (latreia)  given 
to  God. 

The  element  of  teaching  and  preaching  almost  en- 
tirely disappeared  from  worship  which  became  more 
formal  and  cabalistic.  The  church  produced  a  pe- 
culiar style  of  church  architecture,  characterized  by 
gilded  cupola  or  a  trinity  of  them. 

2.  General  stagnation,  no  important  development  in 
other  respects.  John  of  Damascus  (700-54)  the  last 
writer  of  importance. 

(B)     OTHER  EASTERN  CHURCHES. 
Reference:    K.  Sec.  72, 

1.  THE  NESTORIANS  OF  PERSIA,  opposing  the  wor- 
ship of  images,  saints  and  relics  and  priestly  celibacy, 
flourished  under  the  Mohammedans  till  13th  century. 
Their  seminaries  at  Edessa,  Nisibis  and  Seleucia  were 
famous.  They  produced  an  extensive  theological 
literature  (now  mostly  lost),  and  prosecuted  mission 
work  successfully  in  China  and  India.  With  the 


76  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

overthrow  of  the  Caliphs  by  Genghis-Khan  in  1219 
their  prosperity  ended  and  they  were  almost  extermi- 
nated and  driven  into  the  mountains  by  Tamerlane,  the 
scourge  of  Asia  (1369-1405).  They  have  not  flour- 
ished since,  but  still  exist. 

2.  THE  MONOPHYSITE  CHURCHES.  (l)The  Armen- 
ian Church  enjoyed  a  good  measure  of  independence 
and  flourished  accordingly.  In  the  8th  and  again  in 
the  12th  century  it  unfolded  a  rich  literary  activity. 
Some  of  the  Armenians  united  with  the  Roman  church 
in  the  15th  century.  (2)  The  Jacobite  Church  (a) 
In  Syria  it  was  considerably  oppressed  but  showed 
some  literary  activity,  (b)  In  Egypt  they  (Copts) 
suffered  terrible  persecution  in  13th  century,  being 
driven  out  of  the  cities  and  reduced  to  miserable  weak- 
ness, (c)  In  Abyssinia  they  maintained  their  inde- 
pendence, but  also  fell  into  utter  stagnation,  (d)  The 
Maronites  in  Mt.  Lebanon  joined  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  in  1182.  They  constitute  the  largest  gains 
the  Roman  Catholics  ever  made  in  the  East,  and  now 
number  c.  200,000. 

B.     WESTERN  CHRISTIANITY. 

Here  the  complexity  and  richness  of  development 
makes  it  necessary  to  study  by  periods  which  are 
marked  with  tolerable  clearness. 

(A)     FIRST  PERIOD,  c.  600  TO  c.  850. 
I.    EXTERNAL  HISTORY. 

1.  POLITICAL.  Christian  government  was  complete- 
ly overthrown  in  North  Africa  by  the  Mohammedans 
during  the  seventh  century,  and  has  never  been  re- 
established. Beginning  in  711,  they- rapidly  overran 


of  Church  History.  77 

all  Spain  except  the  northwest  portion,  where  the 
Christians  rallied  and  began  the  struggle  to  throw  off 
the  Moslem  yoke,  which  lasted  till  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  The  various  German  tribes  settled 
down  in  their  new  homes,  began  to  adopt  the  language, 
culture  and  religion  of  their  subjects  and  to  establish 
stable  governments,  which  were  elective  monarchies, 
built  on  the  old  tribal  organization,  and  were  for  a 
long  time  exceedingly  crude  and  unstable.  In  Eng- 
land the  Heptarchy  continued  till  827,  when  all  Eng- 
land was  united  under  Egbert,  king  of  Wessex.  On 
the  continent  the  Franks  continued  to  be  the  leaders. 
Their  empire,  which  at  the  beginning  of  the  period 
consisted  of  three  parts  (Austrasia,  Neustria,  Bur- 
gundy), was  reunited  613,  but  each  part  retained  a 
ruler  or  majordomus  (mayor  of  the  palace).  Grad- 
ually these  mayors  became  stronger  than  the  kings 
themselves.  In  687  Pepin,  the  Middle,  of  Austrasia, 
conquered  the  Mayor  of  Neustria  and  made  himself 
Mayor  of  the  entire  Prankish  empire  to  714.  His  son, 
Charles  Martel  (Mayor  714-41)  reduced  the  rebellious 
Prankish  nobles,  fought  the  heathen  Saxons  and  Fri- 
sians, defeated  and  turned  back  the  Moslems  at  Tours, 
732.  His  son,  .Pepin  the  Short  (Mayor  since  741), 
with  the  approval  of  the  pope,  deposed  the  king  and 
was  himself  anointed  king  by  Bishop  Boniface  at  Sois- 
sOns,  751,  thus  beginning  the  Carolingian  (Carloving- 
ian)  line.  In  754  he  and  his  sons  were  anointed  by 
the  pope  himself  at  St.  Denis  near  Paris;  in  return 
the  Franks  became  the  pope's  protectors.  Since  568 
the  Lombards  had  held  most  of  North  Italy,  with 
their  capital  at  Pavia,  and  were  threatening  to  incor- 
porate into  their  kingdom  Rome  and  the  Patrimonium 


78  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

Petri,  which  were  ruled  by  the  pope  in  semi-independ- 
ence. Pepin  drove  back  the  Lombards,  confirmed  the 
pope's  rule,  enlarged  his  territory  by  the  gift  of  the 
exarchate  and  Pentapolis,  thus  (755)  laying  the  foun- 
dation of  the  papal  state;  for  this  service  Pepin  re- 
ceived the  title  Patricius  of  Rome.  Charles  the  Great 
(Charlemagne,  768-814),  king,  with  his  brother,  Carl- 
oman,  to  771,  and  then  alone,  destroyed  the  Lombard 
empire,  773,  confirmed  and  enlarged  the  papal  states, 
and  himself  took  the  title  of  King  of  Italy,  extending 
his  authority  over  Northern  and  Middle  Italy,  while 
the  southern  portion  remained  under  the  Greek  (By- 
zantine) Empire.  From  772  to  804,  in  many  wars, 
he  reduced  the  heathen  Saxons  and  forced  them  to 
accept  Christianity.  He  drove  back  the  Mohamme- 
dans into  Spain,  conquered  the  Avars  and  other  Slavs 
along  the  German  border,  and  (Christmas,  800)  was 
crowned  emperor  by  the  pope  at  Rome,  thus  reviving 
the  Roman  Empire  in  the  West.  The  empire  con- 
tained most  of  France  and  large  sections  of  Germany, 
Switzerland,  Italy  and  other  modern  states.  Under 
Louis  the  Pious  (814-40)  the  affairs  of  the  empire 
fell  into  disorder,  and  after  his  death  his  sons,  by  the 
treaty  of  Verdun  (843),  divided  the  empire  into  three 
parts,  East  portion  fell  to  Louis  the  German,  West  to 
Charles  the  Bald,  and  a  Central  strip,  with  the  impe- 
rial dignity,  to  Lothair. 

By  the  close  of  the  period  the  Saracens  had  reduced 
Sicily  and  were  threatening  South  Italy,  still  held 
largely  by  the  Greeks.  The  Scandinavian  countries 
were  just  beginning  to  come  into  view  of  history  by 
piratical  raids  upon  the  coasts  of  Germany  (Vikings). 


of  Church  History.  79 

2.  MISSIONS.  (References:  K.  Sees.  75-80;  N.  i. 
406-22;  H.  i.  556-89;  A.  ii.  50-124;  M.  ii.  49-98;  S.  iv. 
27-42,  84-106.)  This  was  a  period  of  considerable/ 
missionary  activity.  Early  in  the  period  the  remnants 
of  Arianism  were  converted  to  orthodoxy  or  over- 
thrown by  the  Mohammedans,  so  that  western  Chris- 
tianity was  almost  completely  unified.  Many  new  mis- 
sions were  undertaken  and  new  methods  adopted. 
They  were  originated  and  supported  by  the  pope,  by 
bishops  or  by  kings;  began  at  the  top  of  the  social! 
scale  and  worked  downward ;  produced  a  strong  and 
secure  ecclesiastical  organization,  but  the  rapid  con- 
versions were  superficial  and  often  political.  The 
Christianity  was  of  course  not  primitive,  but  the  papal 
Christianity  of  the  seventh  and  following  centuries; 
in  all  cases  the  new  mission  was  attached  to  the  papal 
chair. 

(1)  Anglo-Saxons  had  remained  heathen  since 
their  conquest  of  the  British  (449).  Pope  Gregory 
sent  Augustine  to  England  597 ;  he  Christianized  Kent 
and  founded  Canterbury,  of  which  he  was  archbishop. 
Through  half  a  century  the  work  went  on,  Roman 
missionaries  converting  South  and  Scottish  mission- 
aries North  England.  The  two  types  came  in  conflict, 
and  at  Synod  of  Whitby  (664)  the  English  decided 
to  accept  the  Roman  type  for  all  England.  The  Scotch 
retired,  and  by  716  had  themselves  submitted  to  the 
Roman  church.  Most  of  the  Irish  had  submitted  as 
early  as  701,  and  the  Welsh  did  so  later  in  this  period, 
thus  completing  the  Roman  conquest  of  the  British 
isles.  The  only  changes  necessary  were  the  adoption 
of  the  Roman  hierarchy  and  Easter  reckoning.  They 
continued  priestly  marriage,  the  use  of  the  vernacular 


80  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

in  worship  and  other  national  customs,  and  were  not 
completely  Romanized  until  after  the  Norman  con- 
quest. A  second  archbishopric  was  created  at  York, 
and  other  bishoprics  as  needed.  The  final  organiza- 
tion of  parishes  and  bishoprics  was  made  by  Theodore 
of  Tarsus,  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (668-80). 

(2)  Irish  mission  to  the  continent  began  in 
590,  when  Columban  (543-615),  with  twelve  monks, 
settling  in  Burgundy,  founded  the  monastery  of  Lux- 
euil  and  did  extensive  work  among  the  moribund 
Christianity  of  the  region.  Driven  away  (610),  they 
went  to  Bregenz,  in  Switzerland,  and  did  successful 
work  among  the  heathen.  Leaving  some  of  his  fol- 
lowers (Callus)  behind  to  found  St.  Gall,  Columban 
removed  to  Northern  Italy  (612)  and  founded  the 
famous  monastery  of  Bobbio.  The  influence  of  this 
Irish  mission  extended  over  wide  areas  along  the 
Rhine,  and  lasted  until  the  eighth  century,  when  these 
monks  joined  the  Benedictines.  This  missionary  work 
was  not  subject  to  Rome. 

^  (3)  Conversion  of  Germany,  a.  During  seventh 
century  much  mission  work  was  done  by  Scottish  and 
Frankish  missionaries  along  the  western  and  southern 
borders  of  Germany,  but  Christianity — regarded  by 
Saxons  as  the  religion  of  the  hostile  Franks — was  op- 
posed on  political  as  well  as  religious  grounds;  mis- 
sionaries suffered  much  hardship,  and  there  were  many 
martyrdoms,  b.  Real  progress  began  with  the  coming 
of  Anglo-Saxon  missionaries,  the  greatest  of  whom 
were  Willibrord  and  Boniface.  Willibrord  (658-739), 
apostle  of  the  Frisians,  began  work  690  under  protec- 
tion of  Pepin  and  supported  by  Rome.  In  696  he 
became  archbishop  of  Utrecht,  and  before  his  death 


of  Church  History.  81 

had  converted  the  South  Frisians,  despite  the  continual 
opposition  of  their  prince.  Before  close  of  period  the 
Frisians  were  Christianized  and  furnished  with  Chris- 
tian institutions.  Boniface  (680-755),  the  apostle  of 
Germany,  began  his  work  in  716.  He  addressed  him- 
self to  the  overthrow  of  the  Celtic  mission  and  the 
revival  and  organization  of  existing  Christianity  in 
subjection  to  Rome  more  than  to  the  conversion  of 
,the  heathen.  After  preaching  to  the  heathen  Frisians 
he  was,  in  723,  ordained  by  the  pope  missionary  bishop 
and  primate  of  Germany,  after  having  sworn  fealty  to 
the  pope.  The  year  724  he  spent  in  Hesse,  overthrow- 
ing the  heathen  and  Scots  and  organizing  the  church 
in  subjection  to  Rome;  from  725  to  735  he  did  a 
similar  work  in  Thuringia;  the  years  735  to  741  he 
spent  in  a  not  very  successful  attempt  to  organize  the 
church  of  Bavaria  in  subjection  to  Rome.  The  sons 
of  Charles  Martel  were  favorable  to  the  ideas  of 
Boniface,  who  spent  the  next  ten  years  in  reorganiz- 
ing the  Frankish  church  in  conformity  and  subjection 
to  Rome.  In  742  Austrasia,  and  in  744  Neustria, 
through  synods,  adopted  his  ideas  and  then  gradually 
worked  them  out.  In  755  he  was  killed  while  on  a 
mission  to  the  Frisians,  c.  The  Saxons  were  violent 
opponents  of  Christianity  and  maintained  their  inde- 
pendence and  their  paganism  till  Charlemagne,  by 
several  bloody  wars  (772-804),  forced  them  to  accept 
Christianity  and  the  Frankish  yoke.  He  organized 
the  church  with  eight  bishoprics,  and  soon  the  Saxons 
were  real  Christians,  d.  Scandinavia.  This  mission 
was  exceedingly  difficult  and  discouraging  for  many 
years.  It  was  begun  among  the  Danes  in  823  by  Ebo, 
archbishop  of  Rheims,  head  of  a  diplomatic  mission. 


82  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

-*" 

In  826  the  king  was  baptized,  and  a  young  monk, 
Ansgar  (801-65),  the  apostle  of  Scandinavia,  began 
his  work.  Driven  out  of  Denmark  (830),  he  labored 
in  Sweden  for  eighteen  months.  In  834  the  bishop- 
ric of  Hamburg  was  founded  as  a  basis  for  the  prose- 
cution of  this  northern  work.  About  840  the  mission 
was  almost  completely  destroyed  by  heathen  reaction 
and  opposition.  But  about  850  both  Sweden  and 
Denmark  were  again  opened  to  Christian  work  by 
favorable  governments,  and  from  that  time  on  the 
mission  flourished.  The  final  work  was  done  by  mis- 
sionaries from  England. 

II.     ECCLESIASTICAL  CONSTITUTION — THE  PAPACY, 
HIERARCHY,  CLERGY,  MONKS. 

References:  K.  Sees.  82-87;  H.  i.  473-501;  M.  ii.  84-110; 
A.  ii.  125-162,  252-92;  S.  iv.  211-73. 

1.  THE  PAPACY.  The  influence  of  the  pope  was 
greatly  strengthened  and  extended  during  this  period. 
The  Mohammedan  concQiests  eliminated  his  great 
eastern  rivals,  political  anarchy  in  Italy  made  him  a 
temporal  ruler  there,  missions  extended  his  sway  over 
the  British  isles,  the  F?ankish  empire  and  parts  of 
Scandinavia ;  renunciation  of  Byzantine  authority  and 
alliance  with  the  Franks  greatly  strengthened  him  in 
all  Western  Europe;  Pepin  and  Charlemagne  made 
him  temporal  ruler  of  Central  Italy  (755)  ;  the  forgery 
of  the  Donation  of  Constantine  (Henderson,  319-29) 
confirmed  his  authority  in  the  state;  the  transfer  of 
the  royal  crown  from  the  Merovingians  to  Pepin  in 
752,  and  the  crowning  of  Charles  as  emperor  in  800 
increased  his  prestige.  In  this  advance  the  popes  were  \ 


of  Church  History.  83 

compelled  to  oppose  the  princes  in  the  state  and  the 
metropolitans  in  the  church,  and  the  struggle  led  to 
the  production  of  the  pseudo-Isidorian  decretals,  c. 
850,  which  gave  the  pope  temporal  rule  over  princes 
and  spiritual  rule  over  the  church,  as  against  the  met- 
ropolitans. These  forged  documents  played  a  very 
important  role  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  (A.  N. 
F.  viii.  599-644). 

2.  THE  HIERARCHY.     Newly  converted  lands  were 
divided  into  bishoprics  and  parishes  and  provided  with 
clergy  as  rapidly  as  possible.     In  the  Prankish  empire 
the  canonical  election  of  the  upper  clergy  was  usually 
set  aside  by  the  princes  who  appointed  or  nominated 
them.    Because  of  their  culture  and  wealth,  they  were 
often  more   important  than  the   secular  nobles,   and 
engaged  much  in  political  affairs,  constituting  one  of 

I  the  estates  of  the  realm,  with  both  secular  and  spiritual 
jurisdiction.  The  lower  clergy  were  largely  appointed 
by  the  bishops,  but  many  churches  and  chapels  had  the 
right  of  private  patronage. 

3.  CHURCH  (CANON)  LAW  was  introduced  into  the 
newly  converted  regions   and  enforced  by  state  and 
church.     The  most  important  additions  to  these  laws 
were  the  pseudo-Isidorean  decretals. 

4.  CHURCH  AND  MONASTIC  PROPERTY  could  not,  ac- 
cording to  the  thought  of  the  time,  be  alienated  when 
once  in  ecclesiastical  possession.    Princes  and  rich  peo- 
ple were  generous  with  their  gifts,  and  all  property  of 
clergymen  and  monks  went  to  the  church  at  their 
death.     As  a  consequence,  the  church  was  growing 

^  immensely  wealthy. 

5.  MONASTICISM   was   rapidly  extended   into  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  elsewhere.     Monasteries  for  men 


84  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

and  for  women  were  centers  of  culture  and  material 
development,  sources  of  missionaries,  etc.  They  were 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  their  bishops,  and  the  monks 
received  priestly  consecration  only  when  they  went  as 
missionaries  or  were  otherwise  required  to  perform 
clerical  functions.  Many  of  the  great  monasteries 
were  mighty  forces  for  righteousness  and  religion. 
Their  decay  occasioned  a  reform  in  Germany  by  Ben- 
edict of  Aniane  beginning  about  817. 

III.    THEOLOGY. 
References:    K.  Sees.  90-92;  S.  iv.  511-572. 

The  developments  in  theology  were  unimportant  and 
gathered  around  three  controversies:  1.  The  Adop- 
tionist  Controversy  (782-99)  rose  in  Spain  in  an  at- 
tempt to  meet  the  monotheistic  criticisms  of  the  Sara- 
cens. It  spread  to  Germany,  where  it  was  vigorously 
opposed  by  the  theologians  of  Charlemagne.  The 
Adoptionists  held  that  only  Christ's  divine  nature  was 
properly  son  of  God;  His  human  nature  became  son 
by  adoption.  2.  Eucharistic  controversy  in  Germany, 
831  on.  Paschasius  Radbert,  in  831,  set  forth  clearly 
for  the  first  time  transubstantiation,  the  substance  of 
the  bread  and  wine  are  changed  into  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ,  though  the  term  transubstantiation 
was  not  yet  used.  He  was  opposed  by  Ratramnus  and 
most  of  the  writers  of  the  time  844  on,  and  was  con- 
demned by  several  synods.  This  controversy  will  be 
renewed  in  eleventh  century  and  decided  in  thirteenth 
in  his  favor. 

3.  PREDESTINATION  CONTROVERSY  (847-68)  was 
started  by  Gottschalk,  a  German  monk,  who  read  Au- 


of  Church  History.  85 

gustine  and  taught  a  double  predestination — to  life, 
and  to  damnation.  He  was  condemned  by  several 
German  synods,  which  asserted  a  moderate  Augustin- 
ianism  as  orthodox  doctrine. 

IV.     WORSHIP. 
References:    K.  Sec.  88;  M.  ii.  112-14;  S.  iv.  397-454. 

Naturally,  worship,  as  it  was  practiced  in  Rome, 
was  carried  into  the  newly  converted  lands ;  it  was  also 
k  successfully  introduced  in  most  countries  already 
Christianized.  Only  Milan  and  Spain  were  able  to 
hold  out  against  the  Romanizing  tendency.  The  Latin 
language  and  Roman  liturgy  were  introduced,  preach- 
ing decayed  utterly  (Charlemagne  attempted  to  re- 
vive it),  Roman  music  received  some  German  addi- 
tions, the  organ  was  imported  from  Greece,  757.  Ev- 
ery new  church  and  monastery  was  provided  with  rel- 
ics (what?),  of  which  Rome  was  chief  source;  saint 
worship  was  common,  but  image  worship  not  so  gross 
elsewhere  as  in  Italy  and  East ;  pilgrimages  to  graves 
of  Peter,  Martin  of  Tours,  James  of  Compostella  were 
frequent.  The  beginning  of  the  church  year  was 
changed  to  Christmas,  while  the  Roman  saints  days 
and  church  festivals  were  adopted  and  others  created. 
Heathen  days,  temples,  saints  and  customs  were  adopt- 
ed, as  far  as  possible,  to  conciliate  the  new  converts. 
The  name  of  the  Passover  was  changed  among  Teu- 
tons to  Easter  and  brought  into  connection  with  the 
spring  festival  of  the  goddess  Eostra.  Churches  were 
built  on  the  model  of  the  Roman  basilica,  and  were 
ornamented  with  paintings,  wood  carvings,  altar 
pieces,  etc.  As  long  as  only  a  few  churches  had  the 


86  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

right  of  baptism,  there  were  baptistries,  clock  and  bell 
towers  apart  from  the  churches,  but  when  that  right 
was  conferred  on  all  churches  the  tower  began  to  be 
built  on  the  church,  fonts  to  take  the  place  of  baptist- 
ries, and  sprinkling  the  place  of  immersion. 

V.     CHRISTIAN  LIFE. 

References:   K.  Sec.  89;  A.  ii.  153-66;  M.  ii.  114-19;  S.  iv. 
371-85. 

In  general,  this  was  a  period  of  ignorance,  supersti- 
tion and  deep  moral  degradation.    The  church,  though 
it  was  the  chief  moral  and  intellectual  force  of  the 
(time,  could  not  escape  the  general  decline.    The  higher 
I  clergy,  appointed  for  social  or  political  reasons,  or  as 
;  a   result  of  simony,   delighted   in   hunting,   war   and 
;,  debauchery,  giving  little  or  no  attention  to  their  proper 
:  duties.     The  lower  clergy,  as  a  rule  from  the  lower 
classes,    were    ignorant,    superstitious    and    immoral. 
1  Charlemagne  sought  to  elevate  the  standard  of  effi- 
ciency by  establishing  schools,  introducing  canonical 
ilife  (communal  life  around  the  bishop)  and  rigid  dis- 
cipline, but  with  little  success.     The  monks  were  the 
saving  salt,  founding  schools,  furnishing  missionaries 
and  reformers,  improving  agriculture,  diffusing  learn- 
ing.    The  church  was  compelled  to  tolerate  slavery 
had  slaves  itself),  and  such  legal  customs  as  the  oath, 
the  ordeal  (duel,  fire,  water,  cross,  eucharist  and  other 
tests)  by  which  it  was  thought  God  decided  questions. 
Before  end  of  period  confession  was  required  at  least 
once  a  year,   and   excommunicated  persons   suffered 
certain  civil  disabilities.    For  venial  sins  penance  was 
required,  and  the  penalties  for  various  sins  were  so 


Of 

\" 


of  Church  History.  87 

fixed  that  they  were  written  out  in  penitential  books 
(Theodore,  Bede,  others).  The  payment  of  money  in 
place  of  other  forms  of  punishment  (an  old  German 
legal  custom)  gave  rise  to  the  practice  and  doctrine 
of  indulgences,  which  consist  in  the  payment  of  money 
for  a  part  or  all  the  punishment  imposed  by  the 
church.  Later  the  punishment  of  purgatory  was 
thought  to  be  shortened  or  absolved  by  the  church  on 
payment  of  money. 

VI.     LITERATURE  AND  THEOLOGICAL  SCIENCE. 
References:    K.  Sec.  90;  A.  ii.  167-88;  M.  ii.  122-32. 

The  beginnings  of  theological  literature  in  the  ver- 
nacular, seen  among  the  Goths  in  the  last  period,  died 
away  and  only  the  Latin  was  used.  Submission  to  the 
Roman  See  brought  the  Teutons  in  contact  with  the 
earlier  Christian  and  classic  culture.  Some  knowledge 
of  Greek  lingered  here  and  there.  Literature,  pro- 
duced wholly  by  monks,  was  mostly  historical  and 
practical,  and  showed  little  originality,  being  largely 
compilations  from  the  fathers.  Literary  activity  passed 
almost  entirely  from  the  Latins  to  the  Teutons,  Greg- 
ory the  Great  being  the  last  Roman  writer  of  note. 
The  most  notable  writers  were  Isidore,  a  Visigoth"  of 
Seville,  d.  636  ("Sentences"  and  "Ecclesiastical  Offi- 
ces") ;  Venerable  Bede,  an  Anglo-Saxon  monk  of  Jar- 
row,  d.  735  (Eccl.  Hist,  of  Eng.,  others)  ;  Alcuin,  an 
Anglo-Saxon,  d.  804,  assistant  of  Charlemagne  (com- 
pilations, letters)  ;  Paulus  Diaconus,  a  Lombard  at 
court  of  Charlemagne,  d.  795  (His.  of  Lombards)  ; 
Rabanus  Maurus  (d.  856),  of  Roman  blood,  but  long 
Germanized  (commentaries,  homilies,  etc.)  ;  Pascha- 


88  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

sius  Radbert,  d.  865 ;  John  Scotus  Erigena,  Irish,  mys- 
tical philosopher,  died  c.  877. 

SECOND  PERIOD,  FROM  c.  850  TO  c.  1050. 
(In  many  respects,  the  darkest  period  in 
Christian  History.) 

I.     EXTERNAL  HISTORY. 
References:    Bryce,  Holy  Roman  Empire,  Chaps.  VI-IX. 

•  1.  POLITICAL  HISTORY.  It  was  a  period  of  terrible 
/  disorders,  robbery,  bloodshed,  almost  anarchy.  Europe 
was  beset  on  the  southeast  by  the  Mohammedans,  who 
laid  waste  the  Mediterranean  coasts;  on  the  east  by 
hordes  of  Slavs  (Hungarians,  Wends  and  others),  who 
again  and  again  laid  Germany  waste  and  penetrated  to 
the  heart  of  France ;  on  the  west  and  north  by  the 
Northmen  (Danes,  Swedes  and  Norwegians),  who 
wasted  the  Atlantic  coasts,  penetrated  Germany  and 
France  by  the  rivers,  appropriated  a  large  section  of 
Western  France  (Normandy),  passed  into  the  Medi- 
terranean and  formed  a  kingdom  in  Southern  Italy, 
harried  the  British  Isles  for  two  centuries  and  finally 
completely  overthrew  the  existing  government  of  Eng- 
land. 

(1)  Germany.  Carlovingians,  843-911  (Louis  the 
German,  843-876,  Charles  the  Fat  to  887,  Arnulf  to 
899,  Louis  the  Child  to  911)  ;  Conrad  I.  to  918;  Saxon 
line,  919-1024  (Henry  I  to  936,  Otto  I  (the  Great)  to 
973,  Otto  II  to  983,  Otto  III,  1002,  Henry  II,  1024) ; 
Conrad  II  to  1039 ;  Henry  III  to  1056.  In  870  the  por- 
tion of  the  old  empire  between  Germany  and  France 
was  apportioned  between  them,  Germany  obtaining  the 


of  Church  History.  89 

imperial  dignity.  It  has  remained  debatable  ground  to 
the  present.  In  875  Charles  the  Bald  of  France  be- 
came emperor,  but  in  881  Charles  the  Fat,  of  Germany, 
recovered  the  title  for  Germany,  and  henceforth  the  im- 
perial dignity  remained  with  the  German  king,  but  was 
actually  worn  only  when  able  to  assert  authority  as 
king  of  Italy  and  secure  the  papal  crowning  and  an- 
ointing as  emperor.  Hence  frequently  there  was  no 
emperor,  and  often  the  king  of  Germany  was  com- 
pelled to  wait  long  for  the  imperial  dignity.  From  899 
to  962  Germans  exercised  no  authority  in  Italy,  and 
Italian  nobles  were  fighting  for  the  imperial  crown. 
Germany  was  wasted  by  the  Slavs  on  the  east,  and  the 
Northmen  on  the  west,  until  under  Louis  the  Child  the 
German  kingdom  threatened  to  dissolve  into  great  in- 
dependent duchies  (Saxony,  Franconia,  Bavaria, 
Schwabia,  Lothringia).  Henry  I  (The  Fowler) 
stopped  the  advance  of  the  Slavs  and  Northmen,  began 
to  reduce  the  great  nobles  to  submission,  and  bring 
order  and  safety  in  the  land.  Otto  I  completely  de- 
feated the  Slavs,  reduced  all  the  great  nobles  to  sub- 
mission, restored  German  authority  in  Italy,  and  in  962 
revived  the  empire  (Holy  Roman  Empire  of  the  Ger- 
man Nation)  by  having  himself  crowned  emperor.  He 
made  the  bishops  and  archbishops  secular  princes  to 
offset  the  great  nobles.  They  held  high  place  in  gov- 
ernment, but  were  appointed  by  and  were  subject  to  the 
king.  The  imperial  coronation  was  nearly  always  ob- 
tained from  the  pope  by  force,  and  frequently  caused 
bloodshed.  After  the  death  of  Otto  I  the  empire  de- 
cayed until  Henry  III  brought  it  again  to  a  high  point 
of  glory  and  power. 

(2)  France.    The  Carlovingians,  843-987;  Charles 
the  Bald  to  877 ;  Louis  the  Stammerer,  879 ;  Louis  III 


90  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

and  Carloman,  884  (L.  killed  accidentally  882 ;  C.  884)  ; 
Charles  the  Fat,  884-7.  After  the  death  of  Charles 
there  was  political  anarchy  for  a  century.  Sometimes 
six  or  seven  men  were  contending  for  the  crown. 

France  did  not  suffer  seriously  from  the  Slavs,  but 
the  internal  disorders  were  greater  than  in  Germany, 
and  the  Northmen  settled  on  the  Seine,  ravaged  the 
country  till  they  were  recognized  as  the  lawful  vassals 
of  the  king  in  911  (Normandy).  Here  they  soon 
adopted  the  French  language  and  the  Christian  reli- 
gion. In  987  Hugo  Capet  became  the  founder  of  a 
new  dynasty,  which  lasted  till  1328,  but  the  royal 
authority  was  greatly  reduced  and  the  great  nobles 
were  long  practically  independent,  often  more  powerful 
than  the  king,  and  the  central  government  was  only  a 
name. 

(3)  England.     The  attacks  of  the  Danes  on  Eng- 
land had  begun  before  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century. 
They  were  still  ruthless  heathen.     Alfred  the  Great 
succeeded  in  stemming  the  tide,  but  was  compelled  to 
leave  a  large  part  of  North  England  to  them.  They  set- 
tled down  and  were  gradually  Christianized,  but  to- 
ward end  of  tenth  century  invasions  began  again.    In 
1002  the  Danes  were  massacred    (Danish  Vespers), 
and  this  caused  the  complete  reduction  of  England  by 
Canute  and  his  son  (1016-1042).     He  was  succeeded 
by  Edward  the  Confessor,  the  last  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
kings. 

(4)  Spain.    The  splendid  Caliphate  of  Cordova  last- 
ed from  755  to  1031,  when  it  broke  up  into  many 
smaller  Mohammedan  states.     The  Christians  in  the 
north  had   formed  three  kingdoms,   Castile,   Aragon 
and  Navarre.     The  struggle  between  the  two  faiths 


of  Church  History.  91 

continued  through  the  period,  with  the  Christians  grad- 
ually regaining  their  lost  territory. 

2.  THE  PAPACY.  (References:  K.  Sec.  96:1-5; 
M.  ii.  155-88;  N.  i.  494-502;  A.  ii.  253-320;  S. 
iv.  273-303.)  The  earlier  Carlovingians  exerted  a 
very  decided  influence  upon  the  election  and  policy 
of  the  popes ;  but  as  the  line  decayed  the  popes  strug- 
gled for  independence  and  increased  influence  in  church 
and  state.  This  culminated  in  Nicholas  I  (858-67), 
one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  popes ;  he  and  his  next 
two  successors  sought  to  extend  their  authority  over 
all  opponents  in  church  and  state  and  destroy  the  power 
and  rights  of  metropolitans  and  kings.  The  papacy 
(then  fell  into  utter  decay  for  almost  a  century.  It  was 
the  football  of  Italian  parties,  and  was  generally  filled 
by  unworthy  men.  From  904-63  the  Pornocracy,  the 
pope  controlled  by  three  unworthy  women  (Theodora 
and  her  daughters,  Marozia  and  Theodora),  brought 
frightful  moral  conditions.  In  Germany  the  Saxon 
kings  were  reforming  the  church  by  appointing  able 
bishops,  investing  them  with  authority  over  temporal 
matters  and  requiring  service  from  them  as  from  other 
nobles.  When  Otto  the  Great  reached  Rome  he  de- 
posed a  corrupt  pope  (963),  had  a  better  one  elected, 
and  forced  the  Romans  to  swear  never  to  elect  a  pope 
without  the  emperor's  consent  and  approval.  There 
was  frequent  schism,  but  under  the  Ottos  real  improve- 
ment. Otto  III  adopted  the  plan  of  appointing  Ger- 
man popes.  After  his  death  the  great  office  fell  back 
into  the  hands  of  the  Italian  nobles  and  became  un- 
speakably corrupt.  Henry  III  in  1046  held  a  synod  at 
fSutri,  which  deposed  two  corrupt  popes  and  elected  a 


J 


92  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

new  one.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  great  reform 
which  ushered  in  the  glorious  period  of  papal  power 
and  ascendency. 

3.  MISSIONS.  (References:  M.  ii.  133-54;  A.  ii.  223- 
52;  K.  Sec.  93:1-9.)  The  Northmen  who  migrated 
into  Christian  territory  were  all  converted  during  this 
period.  The  work  of  Christianizing  Denmark,  Norway 
and  Sweden  was  carried  to  completion  amid  many  re- 
lapses and  much  persecution.  In  each  case  it  was  finally 
accomplished  by  the  conversion  of  the  royal  family, 
who  then  used  its  influence  in  favor  of  Christianity. 
The  work  of  preaching  was  done  chiefly  by  Anglo- 
Saxons  and  Danes  converted  in  England.  In  Denmark 
Christianity  was  finally  firmly  established  by  Canute 
the  Great  (1016-35).  About  the  same  time  it  was 
finally  victorious  in  Sweden  and  Norway.  During  the 
century,  from  about  950  on,  the  Wends,  Poles,  Prus- 
sians and  Hungarians  were  converted  by  German  mis- 
sionaries and  organized,  for  the  most  part,  under  Ger- 
man bishops  and  archbishops. 

II.     INTERNAL  HISTORY. 
References:    M.  ii.  189-221;  A.  ii.  337-442;   S.  iv.  367-70. 

Of  the  internal  development  of  the  church  during 
these  two  centuries  there  is  little  to  relate.  It  was  a 

! \period  of  stagnation  and  decay ;  few  men  of  ability  and 
little  literature.  In  England  Alfred  the  Great  strove 
to  enlighten  and  elevate  his  people,  but  with  little  suc- 
cess. He  was  followed  by  St.  Dunstan  (925-88),  with 
little  better  success.  An  important  reform  of  the  mon- 
\asteries  was  begun  by  the  organization  of  the  Congre- 


J 


of  Church  History.  93 

gation  of  Clugny,  910  (Henderson,  329-33).  It  was 
made  directly  subject  to  the  pope,  under  strict  rule, 
possessed  of  a  beautiful  service,  and  devoted  to  the 
hierarchal  reform  of  the  church.  Many  subordinate 
monasteries  were  associated  with  the  mother  institu- 
tion, and  together  formed  a  branch  of  the  Benedictines 
known  as  the  Congregation  of  Clugny.  This  move- 
ment had  great  influence  on  the  general  reform  of  the 
church.  New  orders  and  congregations  were  also 
formed.  Schools  continued  in  connection  with  the 
more  important  monasteries,  but  were  much  decayed. 
For  keeping  the  peace  the  church  established  at  various 
places  the  "Truce  of  God,"  by  which  no  one  was  al- 
lowed to  fight  from  Wednesday  evening  to  Monday 
morning,  nor  on  feast  days.  The  Interdict  was  also 
developed,  by  which  a  whole  community  was  denied 
all  the  blessings  of  religion  for  a  period. 

Theology  suffered  complete  decay,  there  being  no 

i  development  or  writer  of  importance  in  the  entire 
world  during  the  two  centuries  of  the  period.  Preach- 
ing and  religious  instruction  suffered  the  same  fate. 
Morals  and  Christian  life  were  at  their  ebb  tide.  This 

I  period  is  the  "Dark  Age." 

(C)     THIRD  PERIOD  FROM  c.  1050  TO  1305. 

This  is  the  period  of  papal  glory  and  supremacy,  and  j 
1  of  splendid  intellectual  activity.    The  great  revival  be- 
gan with  the  period,  and  continued  to  increase  to  about 
/  1215,  and  then  maintained  its  high  level  for  nearly  a 
century. 


94  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

I.     EXTERNAL  HISTORY. 

1.  POLITICAL  HISTORY.  In  general  the  nobility  were 
repressed,  royal  authority  exalted  and  strengthened,  the 
nations  consolidated;  but  the  empire  began  to  fall  to 
pieces  toward  the  close. 

(1)  The  Empire.  _(Bryce,  chs.  x-xii.)  The  out- 
standing facts  of  the  period  were  the  struggle  of  the 
emperors  to  suppress  the  great  nobles  of  the  realm,  to 
assert  their  authority  over  Italy,  and  to  control  the 
church ;  i.  e.,  the  papal  elections,  the  episcopal  appoint- 
ments and  the  church's  property.  Henry  IV.  (1056- 
1106)  reached  his  majority  and  took  over  the  reins  of 
government  in  1065,  put  down  a  Saxon  uprising  in 
1075,  had  the  pope,  Gregory  VII,  deposed  by  a  Ger- 
1  man  synod  (1076)  because  of  his  investiture  decree, 
was  put  under  the  ban,  did  penance  before  the  pope 
(Canossa,  1077),  and  was  released.  Henceforth  two 
great  parties  in  the  empire,  Ghibeline  and  Guelph,  sup- 
ported the  pope  and  emperor  respectively.  Rudolph 
of  Swabia  chosen  king  by  German  princes,  carried  on 
civil  war  till  1080,  when  he  was  killed.  Henry  captured 
Rome  (1084),  set  up  an  anti-pope,  who  crowned  him 
emperor  and  drove  out  Gregory  VII,  who  died  at  Sa- 
lerno, 1085.  Henry  was  still  opposed  by  many  nobles, 
and  was  finally  overthrown  by  his  own  son,  who 
ascended  the  throne  as  Henry  V  (1106-1125).  The 
strife  with  nobles  continued;  likewise  that  with  the 
pope,  till  ended  (1122)  by  Concordat  of  Worms  (Hen- 
derson 408f),  by  which  in  Germany  bishops  and  abbots 
must  be  elected  in  presence  of  emperor  or  his  represent- 
ative, and  be  invested  before  consecration  (not  with 
ring  and  staff)  with  scepter  by  emperor.  In  Burgundy 


of  Church  History.  95 

and  Italy  investiture  took  place  after  consecration.  This 
compromise  peace  did  not  last  long,  and  the  struggle 
with  the  nobles  continued.    Frederick  I  (Barbarossa), 
an  exceedingly  able  prince,  undertook  to  restore  the 
imperial  authority  over  the  German  princes,  Italy  and 
the  papacy.     The  Lombard  cities,  which  had  grown 
into  independent  republics  in  recent  years,  and  the  Nor- 
man kingdom  in  South  Italy  (Kingdom  of  the  Two 
Sicilies),  which  had  risen  in  the  eleventh  century,  were 
the  chief  support  of  the  papacy.    To  reduce  them  and 
the  pope,  Barbarossa  made  six  expeditions  to  Italy. 
During  the  first    (1154)   the  republic  which  Arnold 
of  Brescia,  an  opponent  of  the  worldly  authority  and 
riches  of  the  church,  had  set  up,  was  overthrown  and 
Arnold  was  burnt,  while  the  pope,  restored  to  his  au-  j 
thority,  crowned  Frederick  emperor.     On  the  second 
expedition  the  rebellious  city  of  Milan  was  destroyed 
(1162)  and  an  anti-pope  was  set  up.    Milan  was  soon 
rebuilt,  and  in  1 176  the  Lombard  cities  completely  de- 
feated Frederick  at  Legnano  and  he  was  compelled  to 
make  peace  with  them  and  the  pope  practically  on  their 
own  terms.    Drowned  on  crusade  (1190),  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Henry  VI,  who  reigned  ably  until   1197. 
Civil  war  followed  his  death  to  1208  (Philip  to  1208, 
Otto  IV  to  1215).    Struggle  between  papacy  and  em- 
pire reached  climax  under  Frederick  II  (1215-50),  a 
highly   gifted   prince   and   decided   opponent   of   the 
worldly  power  of  the  papacy.    Crowned  emperor  1220 
on  the  promise  to  lead  a  crusade,  he  was  put  under  the 
ban  1227  for  failure  to  do  so,  went  in  1228,  was  suc- 
cessful ;  was  released  from  the  ban  1230;  peace  to  1239, 
and  then  war  to  his  death.    In  1239  he  was  put  under 
the  ban,  in  1245  deposed.    The  pope  renewed  the  ban 


96  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

and  ordered  the  princes  to  execute  the  deposition.  Sev- 
ral  opposing  kings  were  set  up.  After  the  death  of 
Frederick,  his  house  quickly  died  out.  There  was  an 
interregnum  in  Germany  (1256-73);  the  kingdom  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  was  given  by  the  pope  to  the  French 
under  Charles  of  Anjou  (1266)  ;  the  French  in  Sicily 
were  murdered,  1282  (Sicilian  Vespers),  and  the  island 
was  attached  to  Aragon,  while  the  French  continued  to 
hold  Naples.  The  long  struggle  between  the  papacy 
and  the  empire  had  exhausted  both.  The  empire  was 
never  again  able  to  exercise  authority  over  Italy  or  the 
pope,  and  contented  itself  with  trying  to  hold  Germany 
together.  The  popes  at  the  close  of  the  period  became 
the  vassals  of  France,  and  plunged  into  the  depths  of 
impotence. 

(2)  Italy,  as  we  have  seen,  was  not  a  political  unity. 
In  the  northern  portion  the  empire  exercised  sover- 
eignty, but  gradually  lost  control  and  left  the  North 
Italian  cities  (Venice,  Florence,  Genoa,  Milan,  etc.)  to 
grow  into  independent  states  of  various  forms ;  in  the 
center  the  papal  state  cut  the  peninsula  in  two ;  in  the 
south  the  Normans  began  to  settle  about  1027,  rapidly 
made  themselves  masters  of  Southern  Italy  and  Sicily, 
driving  out  Greeks  and  Saracens ;  were  sometimes  the 
opponents  and  sometimes  the  supporters  of  the  pope, 
who  gave  the  ruler  the  title  of  king.  In  1189  the  king- 
dom passed  by  inheritance  through  the  wife  of  Henry 
VI  to  the  Hohenstaufen,  was  given  by  the  pope  to 
Charles  of  Anjou  (1266),  and  1282  Sicily  was  given 
to  Peter  of  Aragon.  It  was  the  political  policy  of  the 
popes  to  protect  their  own  dominions  by  fostering  dis- 
union in  Italy,  striving  to  prevent  any  power  from  be- 
coming dominant. 


of  Church  History.  97 

(3)  In  Spain  the  conditions  of  the  preceding  period 
continued  through  this,  with  the  Christians  growing 
gradually   stronger.     Aided  in  a  crusade  by  60,000 
Christians  from  France  and  Germany,  they  inflicted  a 
decisive   defeat   on   the    Mohammedans   near   Tolosa 
(1212),  and  founded  the  kingdom  of  Portugal.  *-- *** 

(4)  The  history  of  France  was  largely  a  struggle  of 
the  king  to  put  down  the  feudal  nobility  and  expel  the 
English  kings  from  their  possessions  in  France.     At 
the  beginning  of  the  period  the  king  had  little  more 
authority  than  many  of  his  nobles.    When  the  duke  of 
Normandy  became  king  of  England  in  1066  he  re- 
tained his  possessions  in  France.     Subsequently  these 
were  enlarged  by  marriage  and  conquest,  and  consti- 
tuted a  source  of  infinite  trouble  for  the  French.    Philip 
II  (Augustus),  1180-1223,  won  back  much  of  this  ter- 
ritory from  the  English  and  greatly  strengthened  the 
royal  authority.    The  same  work  was  carried  forward 
by  St.  Louis    (1226-70)   and  Philip  Jthe  Fair   (1285- 
1314),  but  at  the  close  of  the  period  the  English  kings 
still  held  large  portions  of  France  and  would  soon  lay 
claim  to  the  French  crown  and  bring  on  the  Hundred 
Years  War. 

(5)  England.    At  the  beginning  of  the  period  Eng- 
land was  a  united  kingdom,  with  Scotland,  Wales  and 
Ireland  independent.     Feudalism  had  not  risen  there. 
Dane  and  Saxon  had  been  amalgamated,  Anglo-Saxon 
language,  customs  and  laws  prevailed.    William,  duke 
of  Normandy  (the  Conqueror),  overthrew  the  govern- 
ment and  became  king,  1066.    He  was  French  in  lan- 
guage, ideas,  customs,  etc.    He  was  an  able  ruler;  re- 
organized and  greatly  improved  the  condition  and  gov- 
ernment of  England,  both  in  church  and  state,  intro- 


98  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

ducing  many  Normans  in  all  departments.  Henry  II 
(1154-89),  the  first  of  the  Plantagenets,  obtained  by 
inheritance  and  marriage  nearly  half  of  France,  but 
much  of  this  was  lost  by  his  own  sons,  Richard  ( 1 189- 
99)  and  John  (1199-1216).  Henry  greatly  improved 
the  administration  of  justice  and  the  government  of 
the  realm.  John  was  forced  to  grant  the  Great  Charter 
(Magna  Charta)  in  1215  (Henderson,  pp.  135-48). 
Under  Henry  III  (1216-72)  parliament  began  to  be 
formed,  the  Commons  being  called  first  in  1265.  This 
innovation  was  formally  adopted  in  1295.  Under  Ed- 
ward I  (1272-1307)  Wales  was  incorporated  in  Eng- 
land, and  an  effort  made  to  conquer  the  Scotch,  who 
defeated  the  English  at  Bannockburn  in  1314. 

2.  THE  PAPACY.  (References:  N.  i.  502-23 ;  A.  ii. 
477-639;  K.  Sec.  96:6-23;  M.  ii.  243-91 ;  H.  i.  753-77; 
S.  v.  Part  I,  7-210.)  The  church  had  been  deeply  de- 
based in  morals,  utterly  subservient  to  secular  power,, 
often  only  a  tool  of  princes.  The  spirit  of  the  Clugniac 
J  reform  seized  the  papacy  with  the  German  popes  at  the 
beginning  of  our  period.  It  was  directed  against 
simony  and  concubinage  among  the  clergy.  The  popes 
from  1046  on  sought  to  repress  these  two  evils.  As 
means  to  these  ends,  the  effort  was  made  to  subdue  the 
whole  church  under  the  papacy  and  subject  the  state 
to  the  control  of  the  church,  the  spiritual,  and  there- 
fore the  higher  power.  In  order  to  free  the  popes  from  i 
the  control  of  the  Roman  nobles,  and  of  the  emperor, 
the  decisive  voice  in  the  election  of  pope  was  given  to 
a  college  of  cardinals  in  1059  (Henderson,  361ff). 
Hildebrand,  a  moving  spirit  in  these  reforms  from 
1050  on,  became  Pope  Gregory  VII  (1073-85),  and  at 


of  Church  History.  99 

once  pushed  them  with  great  vigor  and  ability.  Polit- 
ical circumstances  caused  the  chief  conflict  to  be  with 
.  the  Empire,  but  there  were  conflicts  with  all  the  West- 
ern powers.  In  1074  Gregory  renewed  the  law  against 
concubinage,  and  sent  the  canons  to  all  bishops  and  le- 
gates to  see  that  they  were  enforced.  In  cases  of 
resistance  he  called  upon  the  secular  princes  to  execute 
them,  and  it  was  done  with  great  severity.  He  se- 
cured the  complete  triumph  of  official  celibacy.  He 
next  attacked  simony  (1075),  striking  at  its  root  by 
forbidding  laymen  to  give,  or  bishops  and  abbots  to 
receive  from  laymen,  a  bishopric  or  abbacy  by  investi- 
ture with  ring  and  crozier  as  a  sign  of  their  allegiance 
to  secular  authority.  This  led  to  the  celebrated  con- 
flict with  Henry  IV  (Canossa,  1077,  see  above)  and 
the  election  of  an  anti-pope,  causing  a  schism  which 
lasted  to  1139,  and  the  pillaging  and  burning  of  Rome 
by  the  Normans,  who  became  the  pope's  chief  support- 
ers. In  England  William  the  Conqueror,  who,  with 
Lanfranc,  was  reorganizing  the  English  church  on  a 
French  model,  1070  on,  resisted  successfully  Gregory's 
claims.  He  appointed  and  invested  the  bishops,  giving 
the  pope  only  the  right  of  confirming  his  action ;  gave 
Canterbury  the  primacy  over  York;  allowed  no  pope 
to  be  recognized  by  his  clergy,  nor  any  papal  legate  or 
communication  to  enter  England  without  his  permis- 
sion ;  refused  to  swear  fidelity  to  Gregory  and  his  suc- 
cessors, and  forbade  marriage  to  the  canonical  clergy 
only,  and  to  those  who  were  in  the  future  to  be  or- 
dained. After  Gregory's  death  the  struggle  continued 
in  Germany,  France  and  England  (Anselm).  In  1111 
pope  and  emperor  made  a  treaty  by  which  the  church 
gave  up  all  its  feudal  rights  and  possessions,  and  the 


100  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

emperor  gave  up  the  right  of  investiture,  but  the  clergy 
would  not  accept  this  arrangement.  Peace  finally  made 
with  the  empire  by  Concordat  of  Worms,  1122.  Dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Barbarossa  the  strife  broke  out  afresh. 
Imperial  law  was  set  over  against  canon  law  (Ron- 
caglia,  1158),  and  a  new  schism  lasted  from  1159  to 
1177. 

At  this  time  there  was  serious  difficulty  between 
church  and  state  in  England.  Henry  II  of  England 
sought  to  make  the  clergy  amenable  to  the  royal  court 
and  otherwise  bring  them  under  the  control  of  the 
state.  He  was  opposed  by  Thomas  a  Becket,  who, 
however,  agreed  to  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon, 
1164  (Henderson,  pp.  11-16),  which  gave  the  king 
authority  over  the  clergy.  Becket  repented,  fled  to 
France,  was  later  reconciled  to  the  king,  returned  to 
England,  caused  fresh  trouble,  and  was  killed  at  Can- 
terbury, 1170.  Henry  did  penance  for  this,  gave  up 
most  of  his  advantages,  and  Becket  was  canonized,  his 
body  working  many  miracles  down  to  the  Reformation. 

In  1179  it  was  decreed  at  the  third  Lateran  council 
that  two-thirds  of  the  votes  of  the  cardinals  were  nec- 
essary to  election.  This  to  avoid  further  schism  (Hen- 
derson, p.  336f). 

Innocent  III  stands  at  the  zenith  of  papal  power. 
He  mediated  between  the  rival  kings  Otto  and  Philip 
of  Germany;  educated  and  consecrated  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II;  put  France  under  interdict  (1200)  and 
forced  the  king,  Philip,  to  take  back  his  wronged  wife ; 
he  held  the  king  of  Portugal  in  leash,  and  crowned 
Peter  of  Aragon  at  Rome  ( 1204)  as  a  fief  of  the  Holy 
See ;  Armenia  sought  his  protection ;  the  Hungarian 
king  obtained  his  crown  from  the  pope.  He  forced  an 


of  Church  History.  101 

objectionable  man,  Stephen  Langton,  into  the  See  of 
Canterbury,  and  when  John  resisted,  put  England 
under  the  interdict,  1208,  put  John  under  the  ban 
and  deposed  him,  1212,  and  ordered  the  King  of 
France  to  execute  his  decree.  John  surrendered,  made 
over  England  to  the  Holy  See,  and  received  it  again 
as  a  fief  1213.  The  brilliant  fourth  Lateran  Council, 
1215,  was  "the  apex  of  papal  glory."  A  bitter  fight 
between  pope  and  emperor  continued  through  the  reign 
of  Frederick  II,  and  even  St.  Louis  of  France  issued 
a  Pragmatic  Sanction  (1269,  of  doubtful  authenticity) 
protecting  the  French  church  from  the  tyranny  and 
exactions  of  the  papacy.  Boniface  VIII  undertook  to 
play  the  role  of  Innocent  III.  The  kings  of  France  and 
England  were  taxing  the  clergy  to  carry  on  their  wars. 
This  Boniface  forbade  on  pain  of  excommunication  in 
the  Bull  Clericis  laicos  (1296,  Henderson,  432-4). 
Philip  replied  by  forbidding  the  export  of  money  from 
France.  The  pope  explained  away  his  meaning  and 
canonized  Philip's  grandfather,  Louis  IX.  In  England 
he  met  with  no  better  success.  In  1300  he  celebrated 
a  great  jubilee  (the  first),  and  in  1302  published 
the  Bull  Unam  Sanctam  (Henderson,  435-7),  making 
obedience  to  the  pope  necessary  to  salvation.  He  died 
in  mortal  conflict  with  the  French  king  in  1303. 

3.  THE  HIERARCHY  AND  THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE 
CHURCH.  (References:  A.  ii.  640-51;  M.  ii.  292- 
320;  K.  Sec.  97;  S.  V.  Part  I,  764-829.)  Dur- 
ing this  period  power  was  more  and  more  cen- 
'  tralized  in  the  pope  and  the  clergy  freed  from  sec- 
ular control.  Canon  law  was  thoroughly  systematized 
by  Gratian  (c.  1150)  ;  the  Crusades  made  the  pope  the 


102  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

central  figure  of  Christendom;  he  is  coming  to  be 
considered  the  vicar  of  God,  or  of  Christ,  in  whom  is 
the  ultimate  source  of  all  authority  in  church  and  state ; 
in  church  this  authority  is  exercised  directly;  in  state 
indirectly,  through  secular  rulers;  both  swords  belong 
to  the  church,  the  spiritual  wielded  by  the  church,  the 
secular  by  kings  for  the  church,  and  at  its  command; 
the  pope  is  more  and  more  the  source  of  ecclesiastical 
law,  so  that  councils  must  be  called  and  held  under 
papal  authority,  and  their  decrees  published  in  his 
name ;  he  can  dispense  with  these  laws,  and  as  a  court 
of  last  resort,  all  cases  can  be  appealed  to  him  either 
before  or  after  trial;  metropolitans  were  required  to 
swear  the  oath  of  fealty  to  the  pope,  while  the  exclu- 
sive right  of  confirming  and  consecrating  bishops,  and 
in  some  cases  nominating  them,  begins  to  be  claimed 
by  the  pope;  legates  go  over  the  world  exercising 
directly  and  personally  the  pope's  power;  increasing 
business  develops  a  large  Roman  court  (the  Curia), 
which  is  henceforth  to  play  an  important  part  in  papal 
history;  the  effort  is  made  to  deprive  the  laity  of  all 
influence  on  the  election  of  bishops  and  to  withdraw 
the  clergy  entirely  from  all  civil  burdens  and  jurisdic- 
tion ;  the  enormous  income  of  the  church  from  its  own 
possessions  was  further  increased  by  tithes  and  many 
special  taxes,  often  raised  to  meet  the  burdens  of  a 
crusade,  and  then  expended  otherwise;  the  enforcing 
of  celibacy  made  the  clergy  more  dependent  on  the 
hierarchy,  while  the  monks  were  gradually  released 
from  episcopal  and  put  under  direct  papal  control ;  the 
mendicant  orders  established  under  the  direct  control 
of  the  papacy  formed  a  powerful  standing  papal  army. 
While  this  hierarchical  organization  was  being  thus 
consolidated  into  an  absolute  monarchy,  it  was  at  the 


of  Church  History.  103 

same  time  being  geographically  extended  by  missions 
over  the  remainder  of  Northern  Europe  and,  by  the 
influence  of  the  Norman  conquerors  of  England,  over 
Scotland  under  St.  Marguerite  (1045-93)  and  David 
(1124-53).  Ireland  was  given  by  the  pope  to  the 
English  king  (1154)  who  invaded  the  island  (1171) 
and  began  the  reorganization  of  the  church  under  the 
papacy. 

4.  MONASTICISM  —  MENDICANT  ORDERS.  (Ref- 
erences: M.  ii.  346-54, 404-21 ;  A.  ii.  681-727 ;  H.  i.  707- 
13,  807-18 ;  K.  Sec.  98 ;  S.  v.  Part  I,  308-426.)  This  was 
the  flourishing  period  in  monastic  history.  Old  orders 
Were  reformed,  new  ones  founded,  the  mendicant  friars 
organized,  the  monks  greatly  multiplied,  furnishing 
the  great  men  of  the  time ;  abbots  had  practically  epis- 
copal rank  with  liberty  to  wear  bishop's  mitres.  The 
monks  were  now  considered  clergymen,  and  lay  breth- 
ren were  admitted  to  attend  to  worldly  business.  (1) 
The  congregation  of  the  Cistercians  founded  at  Cit- 
aux  1098  on  the  basis  of  obedience  to  bishops,  non- 
interference with  pastorates  of  others,  absence  of  orna- 
ments in  churches  and  monasteries.  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux.  (2)  Carthusians,  founded  1086  in  Southeast- 
ern France,  were  very  rigid.  (3)  Premonstratensians 
founded  1121,  strictly  ascetic,  but  given  to  preaching. 
Others  of  less  importance  multiplied  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  formation  of  other  orders  was  forbidden  at 
Fourth  Lateran  Council  1215.  Nevertheless  the  two 
great  mendicant  orders  were  approved  by  the  Pope 
almost  immediately.  They  did  not  withdraw  from  the 
world,  but  went  among  men,  teaching,  preaching,  serv- 
ing; living  from  charity.  They  were  home  mission- 


1(H  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

aries,  traveling  evangelists,  with  all  their  powers,  ex- 
cellencies and  faults.  (1)  Franciscans  or  Minorites 
(fratres  minores),  founded  by  Francis  of  Assisi  (Life 
of  Francis,  by  Paul  Sabatier)  about  1208,  and  recog- 
nized by  pope  1223  (Rule,  Henderson,  344-9).  They 
renounced  all  property,  went  barefoot,  clothed  in  rough 
garments,  devoted  themselves  to  acts  of  self-denial. 
The  order  soon  split  over  the  question  of  holding 
property,  and  the  rigorous  party  (spirituelles)  even- 
tually became  bitter  enemies  of  the  papacy  and  hierar- 
chy. They  had  a  general  in  Rome,  a  provincial  in  each 
country,  and  a  guardian  over  each  cloister.  (2)  The 
Dominicans  or  Preaching  Monks,  founded  by  Dominic, 
a  Spanish  noble,  for  winning  back  the  heretics  of 
South  France,  were  authorized  by  the  pope,  1216. 
Their  purpose  was  popular  preaching  and  hearing  con- 
fession; they  had  a  general  in  Rome,  a  provincial  in 
each  country  and  a  prior  over  each  monastery.  They 
encouraged  liberal  studies,  soon  held  most  of  the  im- 
portant professorial  chairs,  had  many  great  scholars, 
were  ardent  missionaries,  were  entrusted  with  the  man- 
agement of  the  Inquisition  1232.  The  Franciscans 
cultivated  learning  to  a  less  degree.  The  two  orders 
have  ever  been  sharp  rivals.  Other  orders  of  some- 
what similar  character  were  the  Carmelites  (founded 
on  Mt.  Carmel),  and  the  Augustinians.  Several  orders 
of  women  rose  during  this  period.  The  great  orders 
became  rich,  brought  confusion  in  the  church  and  were 
bitterly  criticised  by  the  end  of  the  period. 

Semi-monastic  organizations  were  formed  among 
laymen.  (1)  The  Humiliati  at  Milan  in  llth  and 
12th  centuries.  (2)  The  Beguines  for  women  and 
Beghards  for  men  in  France,  Belgium  and  elsewhere. 


of  Church  History.  105 

They  kept  up  their  work  but  lived  a  celibate  life  de- 
voted to  Christian  service  and  eventually  became  more 
or  less  hostile  to  the  church. 

5.  CRUSADES  (Wars  of  the  Cross).  (References: 
K.  Sees.  94,  98:8;  N.  i.  456-63;  S.  v.  Part  I,  211- 
307;  H.  i.  787-804;  Ludlow,  The  Crusades,  N.  Y., 
1897.)  The  crusades  (1095-1291)  were  an  attempt 
of  Western  Christians  to  recover  the  holy  places 
of  Palestine  from  the  Mohammedans,  who  had  held 
them  for  over  four  centuries.  The  causes  were  (1) 
economic,  (2)  social,  (3)  political,  (4)  religious. 
Every  possible  motive  was  appealed  to  in  order  to  in- 
duce men  to  go.  The  separate  crusades,  variously 
numbered,  were  rather  periods  of  special  activity  than 
single  expeditions.  (1)  The  first,  preached  by  Peter 
the  Hermit  and  Urban  II  (Clermont)  in  1095,  was 
composed  almost  entirely  of  French,  led  by  Norman 
and  French  nobles  (Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  Raymond, 
Hugh,  Tancred,  Robert  of  Normandy,  but  no  kings), 
went  overland,  captured  Nicea,  Tarsus,  Antioch, 
(Holy  Lance),  Jerusalem  July  15,  1099.  They  set  up 
the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  discovered  the  true  cross 
and  organized  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  with  patri- 
arch, four  archbishops  and  several  bishops,  under  the 
authority  of  the  pope.  A  side  expedition  by  Baldwin 
captured  Edessa  and  set  up  government  there  (1097- 
1144).  Soon  most  of  the  surviving  crusaders  returned 
to  Europe.  (2)  The  second  crusade  (1147-9)  occa- 
sioned by  the  fall  of  Edessa  in  1144  and  again  1146, 
preached  by  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  composed  of 
French  and  Germans  and  led  by  Louis  VII  of  France 
and  Conrad  III  of  Germany,  went  partly  by  land  and 


106  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

partly  by  sea,  lost  most  of  its  men  on  the  way,  at- 
tempted in  vain  to  capture  Damascus.  A  dead  failure. 
(3)  The  third  crusade  (1189-92),  occasioned  by  the 
re-conquest  of  Palestine  by  Saladin  and  his  capture 
of  Jerusalem  (1187),  was  composed  of  French,  Ger- 
mans and  English,  led  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa,  who  went  by  land  and  was  drowned  near 
Tarsus  (1190),  by  Philip  II  of  France  and  Richard 
Coeur  de  Lion,  of  England.  The  last  two  went  by 
sea,  capturing  Cyprus  on  the  way  to  Acco,  which  was 
quickly  captured;  the  French  then  returned  home, 
while  Richard  tried  in  vain  to  capture  Jerusalem,  suc- 
ceeding in  recovering  the  coast  from  Joppa  to  Acco. 
On  his  way  home  he  was  held  a  captive  in  Austria  for 
several  months  until  he  was  ransomed.  (4)  The 
fourth  crusade  (1202-4),  roused  by  Innocent  III,  com- 
posed chiefly  of  French  and  led  by  French  barons, 
aimed  primarily  at  Egypt;  but  on  way  captured  Zara 
in  Dalmatia  for  the  Venetians  who  were  transporting 
them  by  sea;  at  Constantinople  they  were  persuaded 
to  restore  the  deposed  Isaac  Angelus  to  the  throne, 
and  when  he  failed  to  establish  the  Roman  church  and 
pay  the  money  he  had  promised  they  recaptured  Con- 
stantinople and  set  up  a  Latin  empire  there  (1204-61) 
and  several  duchies  and  kingdoms  in  various  parts  of 
the  East,  all  having  the  Roman  church.  Several 
minor  expeditions  followed;  Children's  crusade  1212 
and  others.  (5)  The  fifth  crusade  (1228f)  under- 
taken by  Emperor  Frederick  II,  who  recovered  by 
treaty  Jerusalem  (where  he  crowned  himself  emperor) 
and  Nazareth,  together  with  a  strip  of  land  from 
Nazareth  to  the  sea.  In  1244  Jerusalem  was  recap- 
tured by  Mohammedans  who  have  since  held  it.  (6) 


of  Church  History.  107 

Sixth  crusade  (1248-54)  was  led  by  Louis  IX  (Saint) 
of  France  who  attacked  Egypt  as  the  key  to  the  Mo- 
hammedan position,  was  defeated  and  captured  near 
Cairo,  was  ransomed,  sailed  to  Palestine,  fortified 
Acco  and  other  coast  cities  and  returned  to  France 
1254.  Antioch  fell  1268.  (7)  The  seventh  crusade 
(1270)  was  also  led  by  Louis  IX  who  attacked  Tunis 
but  was  swept  away  with  most  of  his  army  by  disease. 
In  1291  Acco  was  captured  by  the  Mohammedans, 
the  Christians  gave  up  Tyre,  Beyrut  and  Sidon  and  the 
crusades  were  at  an  end.  Various  subsequent  at- 
tempts of  the  popes  to  arouse  the  crusading  spirit  were 


Some  of  the  results  were  (1)  the  elevation  of  the 
church  and  papacy;  (2)  the  destruction  of  feudal- 
ism and  the  strengthening  of  kingly  governments;  (3) 
development  of  commerce  and  of  cities  ;  (4)  diffusion 
of  culture  in  the  West  ;  (  5  )  the  development  of  knight- 
hood ;  (6)  founding  of  three  orders  of  spiritual  knights 
who  took  the  three  monastic  vows  and  in  addition  the 
vow  to  fight  the  infidels,  (a)  Knights  Templars  or 
Templars  were  founded  by  French  knights  (1118) 
near  Solomon's  temple.  Wore  white  mantle  and  red 
cross;  1291  they  were  transferred  to  Cyprus,  and  in 
1312  dissolved  by  the  pope  at  the  request  of  the 
French  king  who  wanted  their  great  wealth,  (b) 
Knights  of  St.  John  or  Hospitalers.  Originally  a 
brotherhood  of  the  hospital  of  St.  John  in  Jerusalem 
formed  by  Italian  merchants  (1048),  it  was  changed 
into  an  order  of  knights.  They  wore  black  mantle 
and  white  cross,  were  transferred  to  Cyprus  1291, 
to  Rhodes  1310,  to  Malta  1526,  where  they  were  dis- 
solved by  Napoleon  1798.  (c)  Teutonic  Order.  A 


108  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

brotherhood  of  Germans  formed  at  Acco  (1190)  to 
care  for  the  sick;  was  transformed  into  an  order  of 
knights  1198,  wore  white  mantle,  black  cross.  Invited 
in  1226  by  Duke  of  Poland  to  fight  the  heathen  Prus- 
sians, they  reduced  Prussia  (1230-83)  and  founded  a 
monastic  state.  In  1291  the  seat  of  the  Master  of  the 
order  was  transferred  to  Venice,  1309  to  Marienburg, 
1457  to  Koenigsburg.  In  1525  many  of  the  knights 
joined  the  Reformation,  and  the  state  was  made  a 
secular  duchy. 

6.  MISSIONS.  (References:  K.  Sec.  93;  M.  ii.  361-7; 
A.  ii.  800-10;  S.  v.  Part  I,  427-57.)  Amid  much  hard- 
ship and  suffering,  many  relapses  and  discouragements, 
tt  of  North  Europe  was  Christianized  and  organized 
ler  papacy  during  this  period.  It  was  done  largely 
by  the  monastic  orders  under  the  direction  and  with  the 
support  of  northern  bishops.  The  Wends,  Pomeran- 
ians, Finns  in  12th  century ;  Esthonia,  Livonia,  Cour- 
land  in  12th  and  13th  centuries ;  Prussia  and  Lithuania 
in  13th  century.  A  Latin  mission  was  undertaken  by 
the  popes  to  the  Mongols  in  the  far  East  in  1249  and 
1253.  Unsuccessful.  Again  in  1292  the  Dominicans 
were  unsuccessful  (Marco  Polo).  In  1291  Francis- 
cans began  mission  in  Pekin;  founded  churches,  bap- 
tized many  Mongols,  translated  the  Psalms  and  New 
Testament  into  Mongolian  and  flourished  generally 
until  1370,  when  the  Mongolian  dynasty  was  over- 
thrown and  driven  away  along  with  the  Christians,  by 
the  Ming  dynasty.  In  Persia  the  Mongolian  dynasty 
wavered  between  Christianity  and  Islam  until  1405, 
when  it  was  overthrown  and  Islam  has  been  the  royal 
religion  since. 

Various  efforts  were  made  for  the  conversion  of 
the  Mohammedans  in  North  Africa,  Sicily  and  Spain. 


of  Church  History.  109 

St.  Francis  at  Damietta  (1219)  and  several  Francis- 
cans; likewise  several  Dominicans.  Raymund  Lull  of 
Majorca,  d.  1315.  All  were  fruitless. 

II.    THEOLOGY — SCHOLASTICISM. 

References:  K.  Sees.  99-103;  N.  i.  474-90;  H.  i.  851-901; 
A.  ii.  728-89;  M.  ii.  368-81,  422-38;  S.  v.  Part  I,  587-699; 
Fisher,  Hist.  Doc.  pp.  212-62. 

This  is  the  rich  and  productive  period  in  mediaeval 
'  theology.  It  was  written  in  Latin,  chiefly  by  Italians, 
French  and  Germans;  characterized  by  some  of  the 
boldest  and  most  acute  thinking  of  Christian  history. 
From  the  fact  that  it  found  its  home  in  the  schools 
it  is  commonly  called  Scholasticism.  Its  aim  was  not 
the  discovery  or  further  development  of  truth,  but  the 
'  justification  of  existing  church  doctrines  by  reason. 
Its  method  was  that  of  deductive  logic,  dialectic  and 
speculation,  the  division  and  subdivision  of  a  general 
subject  until  each  detail  was  exhausted.  The  material 
was  sentences  of  the  Fathers,  dogmas  and  canons  of 
councils,  decretals  of  the  popes,  etc.  The  conclusion 
was  confirmed  by  quoting  the  Fathers,  Aristotle  and 
sometimes  the  Bible.  No  subject  was  too  vast  to  be 
understood.  It  was  in  no  sense  Biblical  theology,  and 
in  later  years  it  degenerated  into  trivialities.  The 
great  philosophical  problem  was  the  truth  of  realism, 
conceptualism  or  nominalism  {ante  rem,  in  re,  post 
rem)  ;  affected  more  or  less  all  other  questions.  Ques- 
tions discussed  were  the  being,  nature  and  attributes 
of  God ;  the  Trinity ;  the  relation  of  God  to  the  world ; 
freedom  and  necessity;  ethics,  etc.  The  study  of 
Aristotle  exerted  profound  influence  on  the  method 


110  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

and  later  upon  the  matter  of  theology.  Scholasticism 
is  usually  divided  into  three  periods.  (1)  Its  rise 
1050-1200.  (2)  Its  glory  13th  century.  (3)  Its  de- 
cline 14th  century.  In  the  first  period  nominalism,  in 
the  second  realism,  and  in  the  third  nominalism  again 
prevailed.  The  universities  in  13th  century  became  its 
chief  home.  There  was  little  study  of  church  history, 
exegesis  or  practical  theology. 

The  period  begins  with  a  revival  of  the  transub- 
stantiation  controversy  in  1050.  Berenger  of  Tours 
(1000-1088)  opposed  the  view  that  the  substance  of 
the  elements  is  changed  into  the  body  of  Christ.  Only 
believers  partake  of  his  body  and  blood.  He  was  op- 
posed by  Lanfranc  of  Bee  (1005-89),  and  1059  was 
forced  to  admit  that  the  elements  become  the  body  of 
Christ  which  is  eaten  with  the  teeth.  Later  it  was 
determined  that  the  whole  of  Christ  (body,  soul  and 
divinity)  is  in  every  particle  of  the  bread  and  of  the 
wine.  This  view  adopted  by  the  Lateran  Council  of 
1215.  Anselm  (1059-1109)  maintained  that  faith  pre- 
cedes knowledge,  developed  the  ontological  argument 
for  the  existence  of  God,  the  theory  of  the  vicarious 
atonement  in  Cur  deus  homo,  and  further  developed 
the  doctrine  of  original  sin.  Abelard  (1079-1142),  a 
famous  teacher  and  dialectician,  exalted  the  intellect, 
criticised  many  church  doctrines,  e.  g.,  the  trinity 
(holding  Sabellian  views)  and  inspiration,  founded 
the  moral  theory  of  the  atonement,  championed  ethical 
rather  than  dogmatic  interests,  was  the  modern  man  of 
the  Middle  Ages;  was  condemned  by  councils  in  1121 
and  1141.  His  great  opponent  was  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux  (1091-1153),  conservative  and  churchman,  a 
great  preacher  with  vast  influence,  mystical  but  de- 


of  Church  History.  Ill 

voted  to  church  doctrines,  a  defender  of  orthodoxy, 
a  brilliant  hymn-writer.  He  earnestly  opposed  Abe- 
lard's  view  of  the  atonement  and  his  exaltation  of  in- 
tellect, maintaining  that  faith  is  the  door  to  knowledge, 
that  ecstatic  intuitions  of  divine  truth  are  possible. 
The  theologians  of  the  school  of  St.  Victor  near  Paris 
struck  a  middle  course  between  the  rationalism  of 
Abelard  and  the  conservatism  of  Bernard,  trying  to 
combine  mysticism  and  fearless  dialectics.  These  were 
William  of  Champeaux,  Hugo  and  Richard  of  St.  Vic- 
tor* Criticism  led  men  to  fortify  the  statement  of  their 
own  views  by  quoting  the  Fathers,  especially  Augus- 
tine, thus  forming  books  on  theology  known  as  sen- 
tences. The  most  notable  of  these  is  the  Sentences 
of  Peter  the  Lombard  (1100-64)  which  was  the  stand- 
ard text  book  on  theology  for  centuries.  As  we  turn 
into  the  13th  century  there  appear  two  new  influences 
which  bring  mediaeval  theology  to  its  zenith.  They 
were  the  mendicant  orders,  and  renewed  study  of 
Aristotle.  St.  Francis  sought  to  reproduce  the  "life 
and  the  poverty  of  Jesus,"  through  contemplation, 
self-renunciation  and  service  of  men;  this  personal 
effort  for  the  salvation  and  care  of  souls  was  largely 
open  to  the  laityy.  His  methods  were  copied  by  the 
Dominicans,  and  during  this  century  nearly  all  the 
great  scholars  belonged  to  one  or  the  other  of  these 
orders.  Aristotle  was  scarcely  known  in  the  West 
before  1200,  though  he  was  intelligently  studied,  trans- 
lated and  commented  on  by  the  Arabs  and  Jews  of 
Spain  (Averroes  of  Cordova,  d.  1198  and  the  Jew 
Maimonides,  d.  1204).  This  study,  introduced  by  the 
Jews  into  France,  was  at  first  opposed  by  the  church 
(1209),  but  soon  thoroughly  approved;  he  was  called 


112  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

the  "precurser  of  Christ  in  natural  things,"  was 
' 'thought  to  have  exhausted  the  powers  of  human 
reason  in  the  ascertainment  of  religious  and  ethical 
truth."  The  man  who  introduced  him  into  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  and  Western  theology  was  Alexander 
Hales,  d.  1245,  "irresistible  doctor,"  an  Englishman 
who  in  1222  became  the  first  Franciscan  teacher  in 
the  University  of  Paris.  He  studied  Aristotle,  the 
Arabic  commentaries  on  him,  and  wrote  commentaries 
of  his  own  which  soon  received  the  approval  of  the 
pope.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  Franciscan  Bona- 
ventura  (1221-1274),  an  Italian,  "seraphic  doctor," 
who  wrote  extensively,  combining  in  himself  dialecti- 
cal and  mystical  tendencies.  Among  the  Dominicans 
the  greatest  were  Albert  the  Great,  a  German  (1193- 
1280),  "doctor  universalis,"  with  wonderful  attain- 
ments in  theology,  philosophy  and  the  sciences ;  taught 
at  Cologne  and  elsewhere,  wrote  on  many  subjects. 
His  pupil,  Thomas  Aquinas,  an  Italian  (1227-74), 
"doctor  angelicus,"  educated  at  Cologne  and  Paris, 
taught  at  Rome,  Bologna,  Pisa,  Naples,  was  the  ablest 
thinker  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  next  to  Augustine  the 
writer  of  most  influence  in  the  Catholic  Church.  He 
was  deeply  pious,  Augustinian  in  theology,  author  of 
many  works,  of  which  his  summa  theologica  is  the 
most  important  book  of  the  middle  ages.  He  was 
opposed  at  many  points  by  John  Duns  Scotus,  a  Scotch- 
man (1266-1308),  "doctor  subtilis,"  a  subtle  dialecti- 
cian and  bold  thinker.  He  attacked  many  arguments 
of  scholasticism,  while  holding  the  church  doctrines, 
and  thus  prepared  its  downfall;  was  a  semi-Pelagian 
in  theology,  supported  the  doctrine  of  the  immaculate 
conception.  Two  parties,  Thomists  and  Scotists,  kept 


of  Church  History.  113 

up  a  long  and  bitter  controversy.  The  mystics  of  the 
church  were  the  heralds  of  a  better  day  when  spiritual 
religion  should  once  more  be  paramount.  Roger  Ba- 
con, c.  1214-94. 

III.    WORSHIP. 

References:    K.    Sec.   104;   M.   ii.   321-45;    S.   v.   Part   I, 
830-96,  700-63. 

The  Roman  liturgy  was  now  generally  adopted  ex- 
cept in  Spain  where  it  and  others  were  used.  Preach- 
ing was  revived  in  the  eleventh  century  and  became  a 
*  power  among  the  sects  and  in  the  church  in  the  12th 
and  13th  centuries.  Many  bishops  and  most  of  the 
great  schoolmen  were  popular  preachers ;  so  the  Do- 
minicans, Franciscans  and  other  orders,  while  laymen 
and  uneducated  secular  clergy  were  forbidden  to 
preach.  Popular  preaching  was  in  the  vernacular, 
while  before  the  clergy  it  was  in  Latin.  For  substance 
it  was  largely  the  stories  of  saints,  miracles,  etc.,  but 
there  was  also  sound  moral  teaching.  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux,  Berthold  of  Regensburg,  d.  1272.  Sunday 
was  largely  superseded  by  annual  festivals  of  one  kind 
and  another.  The  number  of  the  sacraments,  still 
under  discussion  in  this  period,  was  finally  fixed  at 
seven  (baptism,  confirmation,  eucharist,  penance,  ex- 
treme unction,  marriage,  ordination)  at  Council  of 
Ferrara  in  1439.  Transubstantiation  was  accepted  as 
the  doctrine  of  the  church  in  1215,  and  the  cup  grad- 
ually withdrawn  from  the  laity  to  avoid  spilling  the 
consecrated  wine.  To  avoid  losing  the  consecrated 
bread  the  wafer  was  adopted  instead  of  bread  to  be 
broken.  Infant  communion  ceased  in  13th  century; 


114  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

the  adoration  of  the  sacrament  by  prostration  at  the 
elevation  of  the  host  (contrary  to  the  old  rule  of 
standing  during  prayer)  was  ordained  by  the  pope 
1217,  and  the  feast  of  Corpus  Christi  adopted  for  the 
whole  church  by  pope  1264.  By  end  of  period  private 
masses  became  a  source  of  serious  abuse.  The  wor- 
ship of  relics  was  greatly  stimulated  by  the  crusades, 
crusaders  bringing  back  all  sorts  of  relics  from  Pales- 
tine :  holy  lance,  Holy  Grail,  holy  coats,  bodies  of  the 
three  kings,  the  true  cross,  a  tooth  of  Jesus,  etc.  The 
fraudulent  trade  in  relics  became  so  great  that  the 
popes  made  efforts  to  restrain  it.  Likewise  the  adora- 
tion of  saints.  Mary  was  now  declared  by  many 
scholars  to  have  been  sinless  from  conception,  practi- 
cally deified  and  made  the  intercessor  between  men  and 
her  Son.  Her  name  was  inserted  in  the  liturgy,  and 
the  ave  Maria  with  rosary  began  to  come  into  use  in 
llth  century,  while  the  Feast  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception arose.  All  these  views  were  vigorously  op- 
posed, and  were  not  adopted  for  the  entire  church. 
From  the  12th  century  the  right  to  canonize  was  en- 
tirely in  the  hands  of  the  pope,  and  hence  all  new 
saints,  of  whom  there  were  many,  were  for  the  entire 
church.  Church  music  was  considerably  developed, 
especially  among  the  Germans,  and  many  noble  hymns 
in  Latin  were  written  by  Abelard,  Bernard,  Adam  of 
St.  Victor,  Aquinas,  Thomas  of  Celano  (Dies  irae 
1260)  and  Jacopone  da  Todi,  d.  1306  (Stabat  mater 
dolorosa).  Church  architecture  developed  wonder- 
fully in  this  period,  creating  enormous  stone  structures 
full  of  wonderful  beauty  and  impressiveness.  The 
romanesque,  in  12th  century  greatly  developed  by  the 
Normans,  was  massive  with  round  arches,  enormous 


of  Church  History.  115 

columns,  vaulted  roof,  massive  towers,  ornamented 
with  plants,  animals  and  geometric  figures  (Durham 
Cathedral).  This  was  followed  by  the  Gothic  in  13th 
and  14th  centuries,  characterized  by  pointed  arches, 
slender  and  lofty  columns,  tall  and  beautiful  windows, 
ornamented  by  hideous  figures  symbolizing  triumph 
over  powers  of  darkness  (Cologne  and  Strasburg 
cathedrals).  In  the  13th  century  both  statuary  and 
painting  began  to  be  developed  and  put  at  the  service 
of  worship. 

Closely  associated  with  worship  was  the  system  of 
confession,  penance  and  indulgences,  which  was  fully 
developed  before  the  end  of  this  period.  The  church 
always  required  the  public  confession  of  gross  public 
sins,  and  had  long  insisted  on  the  private  confession 
of  such  (mortal)  hidden  sins  to  a  priest  in  order  that 
he  might  fix  the  penalty.  Gradually  the  view  devel- 
oped that  all  sins  must  be  confessed  to  a  priest,  and 
the  fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215)  declared  that  every 
Christian  must  confess  all  his  sins  at  least  once  a  year 
to  his  own  priest,  who  should  impose  the  penalties  and 
absolve  the  penitent.  Up  to  beginning  of  the  13th 
century  absolution  was  in  the  form  of  a  prayer  by  the 
priest;  then  it  became  declarative,  "I  absolve  thee." 
This  removed  the,  guilt  of  sin  and  the  eternal  punish- 
ment, but  did  not  deliver  from  temporal  penalties  in 
this  life  and  in  purgatory.  These  could,  however,  be 
greatly  minimized  by  indulgences,  granted  at  first  by 
all  bishops,  but  later  claimed  as  the  exclusive  preroga- 
tive of  the  popes.  By  the  payment  of  money  or  the 
performance  of  designated  tasks  a  part  or  even 
(  rarely  )v  all  the  temporal  penalties  of  sin  were  re- 
mitted for  one's  self  or  another.  In  the  case  of  pur- 


116  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

gatorial  pains  this  remission  was  accomplished  by  the 
transfer  by  the  church  of  some  of  the  superabundant 
good  works  of  Christ  and  the  saints  to  the  needy  souls 
in  purgatory  for  whom  payment  had  been  made.  This 
view  was  completed  by  the  scholastics  of  the  13th 
century. 

Other  methods  of  discipline  were  the  ban  and  in- 
terdict, which  were  often  used  by  the  pope  for  purely 
political  purposes. 

IV.     OPPOSITION  TO  THE  CHURCH — THE  SECTS. 

References:  S.  v.  Part  I,  458-533;  K.  Sees.  108,  109;  N.  i. 
541-81;  M.  ii.  382-403;  H.  i.  823-49;  A.  ii.  652-80;  Newman, 
Anti-Pedobaptism,  chaps.  Ill  and  IV. 

The  unity  of  the  Western  church,  well  nigh  com- 
plete for  four  or  five  centuries,  begins  to  break  up  in 
llth  and  12th  centuries.  The  possible  sources  of  these 
sects  were  (1)  The  possible  persistence  of  primitive 
Christianity.  This  has  not  been  proven.  (2)  The 
probable  persistence  of  earlier  sects,  especially  the 
Manicheans.  (3)  The  revival  of  religion  and  Bible 
study  within  the  Catholic  Church.  This  is  by  far  the 
most  probable  source,  especially  of  the  evangelical 
sects,  since  their  leaders  all  came  out  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  In  South  France,  in  the  Netherlands  and 
along  the  Rhine  there  was  in  the  last  half  of  llth 
and  throughout  12th  and  first  half  of  13th  centuries 
tremendous  opposition  to  the  Catholic  Church,  its  doc- 
trines, practices,  worship  and  organization.  This  op- 
position took  many  forms,  sometimes  remaining  in  the 
church,  more  frequently  separating  from  it ;  sometimes 
remaining  unorganized,  again  reaching  an  organiza- 


of  Church  History.  117 

tion;  overlapping,  merging  into  one  another  until  it 
is  often  impossible  to  distinguish  the  various  parties 
historically.  Only  a  few  of  the  more  important  forms 
can  be  noticed;  for  information  concerning  these  we 
are  largely  dependent  on  the  records  of  the  Inquisition 
of  13th  century. 

1.  CATHARI.  (Albanenses,  Albigenses,  etc.)  a  num- 
erous party  or  parties,  with  many  internal  differences, 
found  chiefly  in  Southeastern  France,  from  about  1000 
on  until  their  extermination  by  a  crusade  (1208-29). 
The  majority  of  them  were  dualists,  rejected  marriage 
and  the  Old  Testament,  held  docetic  views  of  the  body 
of  Christ,  emphasized  the  laying  on  of  hands  for  the 
gift  of  the  Spirit,  rejected  baptism  and  the  supper, 
divided  their  adherents  into  believers  and  elect  or  per- 
fect.    (See  Key  of  Truth.) 

2.  More    evangelical    were   the    Petrobrusians    and 
Henricans,   founded  by   Peter   of   Bruys,   a   Catholic 
priest  burned  1126,  and  Henry  of  Lausanne,  a  monk 
and  deacon,  d.  1148.     They  preached  evangelical  doc- 
trines   throughout    Southeastern    France    with    great 
power  and  effect;  rejected  tradition,  holding  to  the 
Scriptures  alone;  rejected  infant  baptism,  practicing 
believer's  baptism ;  denied  transubstantiation,  all  works 
for  the   dead,   veneration   of   the   cross,   relics,   etc. ; 
opposed  consecrated  buildings,  holding  that  God  can 
be  worshipped  in  one  place  as  well  as  another.     (Poor 
Men  of  Lyons,  Poor  Men  of  Lombardy,  etc.) 

3.  WALDENSES   were   founded  by   Peter  Waldo,   a 
wealthy   merchant   of   Lyons   about   1170.     They   re- 
mained a  body  of  laymen  in  Catholic  Church  till  1184 
when  they  were  excommunicated  and  became  hostile 
to  the  church,  spreading  rapidly  over  South  France, 


118  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

North  Italy,  into  Spain,  Germany  and  Austria,  ab- 
sorbing and  carrying  on  the  work  of  some  of  the  ear- 
lier sects.  They  preached  and  taught  the  Bible  in  the 
vernacular,  made  vernacular  versions  of  the  Bible, 
sought  to  reproduce  the  life  of  Christ  on  earth,  rejected 
transubstantiation,  infant  baptism,  purgatory  and  all 
its  related  doctrines,  veneration  of  saints,  relics,  mir- 
acles, etc.,  refused  to  take  an  oath,  opposed  capital 
punishment,  magistracy  and  war.  They  were  divided 
into  perfect  and  disciples,  and  their  women  also  taught. 
The  officers,  taken  from  the  perfect,  renounced  prop- 
erty and  marriage;  they  were  superintendent,  presby- 
ters and  deacons.  This  body,  at  its  annual  meeting, 
transacted  all  the  business  of  the  society,  sending  out 
missionaries,  exercising  discipline,  etc.  They  were 
terribly  persecuted  by  the  Inquisition  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  13th  century  on,  but  were  able  to  pre- 
serve an  existence,  and  now  constitute  the  bulk  of  the 
evangelicals  in  Italy. 

There  were  many  other  individuals  or  parties  hold- 
ing views  more  or  less  evangelical  throughout  the 
later  Middle  Ages.  To  meet  this  rising  tide  of  oppo- 
sition there  was  organized 

4.  THE  INQUISITION.  (N.  i.  463-9;  Lea,  Hist,  of 
Inqui.  of  the  Mid.  Ages,  3  vols.  His.  Inqui.  in  Spain 
and  Dependencies,  5  vols.)  Heresy  was  regarded  as  a 
mortal  sin,  a  heinous  crime.  It  had  long  been  the  duty 
of  bishops  to  seek  out  heretics,  who  had  in  some  cases 
been  put  to  death.  The  rapid  increase  of  heresy  in 
12th  century  led  to  a  more  systematic  effort  to  sup- 
press it,  both  by  preaching  and  by  force.  The  Third 
Lateran  Council  (1179)  required  systematic  persecu- 
tion of  heretics  by  episcopal  courts;  laymen  were 


of  Church  History.  119 

sworn  to  inform  on  all  suspects,  and  bishops  were  re- 
quired to  proceed  against  them  on  pain  of  deposition. 
The  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (1215)  required  secular 
rulers  to  confiscate  the  goods  of  condemned  heretics 
and  to  execute  them  on  pain  of  being  themselves  ex- 
communicated, deposed  and  deprived  of  their  property. 
All  who  protected  heretics  fell  under  the  ban,  and  all 
suspects  must  clear  themselves  within  a  year  or  be 
treated  as  heretics.  In  1233  the  inquisition  was  made 
a  special  department  of  papal  government  and  given 
to  the  Dominicans  (Domini  canes),  who  proceeded 
ruthlessly.  Confiscated  property  was  divided  with  the 
informers,  the  accused  was  not  permitted  to  know  his 
accusers  or  the  witnesses,  who  were  often  disreputable ; 
torture  was  used  to  wring  out  confessions,  etc.  The 
effectiveness  of  the  Inquisition  depended  upon  the 
subservience  of  secular  rulers.  In  Latin  countries, 
France,  Italy,  Spain,  it  was  effective,  thousands  of 
people  being  put  to  death ;  in  Teutonic  countries  it  was 
less  effective,  still  many  perished  here.  Its  opera- 
tions were  extended  to  witches,  Jews  and  Saracens  in 
13th  century.  Its  results  were  frightful. 

V.    LEARNING  AND  LITERATURE — THE  UNIVERSITIES. 

References:   S.  v.  Part  I,  534-86;  N.  i.  469-74;  H.  i.  935-49; 
M.  423-26;  Rashdall,  Universities  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  monastic  and  cathedral  schools  of  the  earlier 
\  Middle  Ages  grew  into  universities  in  the  latter  part 
of  this  period.  The  trivium  (grammar,  rhetoric,  logic) 
and  the  quadrivium  (music,  arithmetic,  geometry,  as- 
tronomy) of  the  older  schools  were  enlarged  into  cor- 
porations for  teaching  practically  all  knowledge. 


120  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

These  enjoyed  self-government  and  many  other  privi- 
leges granted  by  popes  and  temporal  rulers.  They 
began  to  be  organized  about  the  beginning  of  the  13th 
century.  Bologna  1158,  Montpelier  1180,  Paris,  Ox- 
ford and  Salerno  c.  1200,  eight  more  in  13th,  twenty 
in  14th,  twenty  in  15th  and  two  in  16th  centuries. 
Paris  was  noted  for  theology  (Sorbonne),  Bologna 
for  law,  Salerno  for  medicine.  There  was  really  no 
investigation  in  these  earlier  years,  but  rather  preser- 
vation, disputation  and  instruction. 

There  was  a  mass  of  literature,  all  of  it  Christian, 
most  of  it  theological  and  ecclesiastical.  Latin  was  the 
language  of  learning  and  serious  literature ;  a  vernacu- 
lar literature  began  to  appear  in  France,  Germany, 
England  and  especially  Italy,  where  a  native  literature 
is  to  blaze  so  splendidly  in  the  next  period. 

(D)     FOURTH  PERIOD,  FROM  1305  to  c.  1517. 
I.     POLITICAL  HISTORY. 

1.  THE  EMPIRE.  (Bryce,  chaps.  XIV-XVIII.) 
.  The  empire  never  recovered  from  the  confusion  that 
'  followed  the  death  of  Frederick  II  (1250).  Italy 
never  again  acknowledged  its  suzerainty.  Now  and 
then  an  emperor  was  crowned  at  Rome,  but  exercised 
no  authority.  The  German  states  and  nobles  threw  off 
all  control.  The  league  of  the  Rhine  was  formed  by 
about  sixty  cities  along  the  Rhine  for  mutual  protection 
similar  to  the  Hanseatic  League  in  the  North,  formed 
1241.  Feudal  castles  rose  all  over  Germany,  private 
war  and  robbery  were  universal.  Civil  war,  lasting 
for  ten  years  broke  out  in  1314  between  Frederick 
of  Austria  and  Louis  of  Bavaria.  At  its  conclusion 


of  Church  History. 

Pope  John  XXII  sought  to  depose  Louis  and  give  the 
imperial  crown  to  Philip  of  France.  This  led  to  vig- 
orous literary  war,  in  which  Louis  and  the  Germans 
maintained  that  the  emperor  received  the  throne  not 
from  the  popes,  but  from  the  German  electors  (1338), 
and  this  repudiation  of  the  pope's  authority  was  con- 
firmed by  the  Golden  Bull  in  1356  fixing  the  number 
and  rights  of  electors  (Henderson,  pp.  220-61;  437f). 
The  confusion  continued  through  most  of  the  14th 
and  15th  centuries.  Bohemia  and  Hungary  were  al- 
most independent  kingdoms  until  they  were  swallowed 
up  by  the  Turks,  while  the  Swiss  cantons,  beginning 
with  the  union  of  three  (Uri,  Schweiz,  Unterwalden) 
in  1291,  gradually  built  up  a  confederacy  which  was 
able  to  drive  off  the  Austrians  on  the  East  (Morgarten 
1315,  Sempach  1386),  and  the  Burgundians  under 
Charles  the  Bold  on  the  West  (Granson  1476,  Nancy 
1477,  Charles  the  Bold  killed).  The  Crusades  were 
followed  by  an  advance  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  toward 
end  of  13th  century;  destroying  the  remnants  of  the 
Seljukian  Turks  in  Asia  Minor  under  Murad  I  (1361- 
89),  they  crossed  to  Europe,  captured  Adrianople  and 
made  it  their  capital  1365.  Before  the  end  of  the 
century  they  had  conquered  Macedonia,  Thessaly  and 
Greece.  Constantinople  was  threatened  and  paying 
tribute  when  the  invasion  of  Tamerlane  1402  stopped 
them.  Under  Murad  II  the  project  of  destroying  the 
Greek  empire  was  taken  up  again,  and  under  Mo- 
hammed II  Constantinople  was  captured  and  made 
the  capital  of  the  new  Turkish  empire  1453.  They 
now  passed  up  the  Danube  to  attack  the  Western  em- 
pire, and  before  end  of  period  most  of  Hungary  and 
much  of  Poland  had  been  overrun.  Maximilian  I 


122  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

(1493-1519),  the  last  emperor  of  the  period,  was 
stronger  than  his  predecessors,  but  was  able  to  ac- 
complish little  for  the  reform  of  the  empire. 

2.  ITALY.     The  decline  of  the  empire  and  the  Baby- 
lonian captivity  of  the  popes  left  Italy  without  any 
central  authority.     Strife  between  Guelphs  and  Ghi- 

\  belines  continued.  Anarchy  prevailed,  cities  and 
classes  fighting  with  each  other.  Gradually  five  states 
secured  the  lead.  Kingdom  of  Naples,  duchy  of 
Milan,  republics  of  Florence  and  Venice,  and  the  papal 
state.  Sicily  and  Naples  were  reunited  1435  under 
Spanish  prince.  Florence  from  1378  was  ruled  by  the 
Medici,  a  rich  merchant  family,  but  under  republican 
forms.  Romans  attempted  to  establish  old  Roman 
republic  under  Rienzi  (1347-54).  In  1494  Charles 
VIII  of  France,  in  order  to  recover  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  invaded  Italy,  intending  after  that  to  extend 
his  conquests  to  the  East.  This  began  the  rivalry  of 
France  and  Spain  for  the  control  of  Italy  which  caused 
so  much  bloodshed. 

3.  FRANCE.      The    socalled    "hundred    years    war" 
V  (1337-1453)  was  caused  by  the  desire  of  the  French 

to  drive  the  English  off  the  continent  and  the  desire  of 
the  English  to  retain  their  land  and  take  the  French 
crown.  (1)  From  1337-60.  English  successful. 
Crecy  1346,  Poitiers  1356.  By  treaty  of  Bretigne 
(1360)  the  English  secured  the  province  of  Aquitaine 
with  other  lands,  renounced  their  claims  to  French 
throne  and  all  lands  north  of  the  Loire  and  released 
the  captive  king  on  payment  of  a  ransom.  A  terrible 
revolt  in  Paris  and  among  peasants  1356-8.  (2)  To 
Peace  of  Troyes,  1420.  War  soon  broke  out  again, 
and  was  at  first  favorable  to  France.  The  imbecility 


of  Church  History.  123 

of  Charles  VI  caused  division  in  France,  the  northern 
portion  (Burgundy)  favoring  the  English,  the  south- 
ern portion  (Armagnacs)  favoring  the  French  king. 
At  Agincourt  1415  Henry  V  of  England  completely 
defeated  Armagnacs.  By  treaty  of  Troyes  he  mar- 
ried a  daughter  of  Charles  VI  of  France,  was  recog- 
nized as  regent  of  France,  to  be  king  after  death  of 
Charles.  (3)  To  end,  1453.  Both  kings  died  (1422), 
and  Charles  VII  was  crowned  king  of  France  south  of 
Loire.  Joan  of  Arc  (1429)  turned  fortunes  of  France. 
In  1435  Duke  of  Burgundy  was  reconciled  to  the  king 
of  France,  and  the  English  were  rapidly  driven  out 
until  1453  they  held  only  Calais,  which  they  held  till 
1558.  France  was  desolated,  but  rapidly  recovered. 
Burgundy  and  other  great  duchies  were  won  for  the 
king  until  at  close  of  period  it  was  a  strong  and  well 
organized  government. 

4.  ENGLAND  was  engaged  with  France  during  the 
Hundred  Years  War.     In  1371  Scotland  gained  com- 
plete independence  under  the  house  of  Stuart.     Fre- 
quent struggles  with  the  nobility.     Wars  of  the  Roses 

^  (1459-85)  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster, 
a  war  of  the  nobility  which  was  almost  destroyed,  leav- 
ing the  king  supreme  and  England  strongly  centralized 
at  end  of  period. 

5.  SPANISH  PENINSULA.    The  kingdoms  of  Castile 
and  Aragon  continued  separate  but  gained  upon  the 
Moors  in  South  until  they  were  completely  overthrown 
in  1492.     The  marriage  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  (the 
Catholic)  and  Isabella  of  Castile  prepared  the  way  for 
the  union  of  these  two  kingdoms  under  Charles  I  (V). 
The  southern  part  of  Navarre  was  annexed  to  Aragon 
1512.     The  "Spanish"  Inquisition  stamped  out  all  in- 


124  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

ternal  disorders,  the  church  was  reformed.  There 
were  discoveries  by  Italians  in  Spanish  service  (Co- 
lumbus, Amerigo  Vespucci),  by  Spaniards  (Balboa), 
by  Portugese  (Vasco  de  Gama,  Cobral,  Magellan). 
Spain  is  rapidly  becoming  the  leading  nation  of  Eu- 
rope at  close  of  period. 

7.  SCANDINAVIAN  COUNTRIES.     Denmark,  Sweden, 

1  and  Norway  united  in  Union  of  Colmar  (1397)  under 

an  elective  king.     There  was  considerable  friction  and 

one  dissolution  of  the  Union,  but  it  was  restored  and 

still  existed  at  end  of  period. 

II.     EXTERNAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

References:  N.  i.  523-40;  K.  Sec.  110;  A.  ii.  816-931;  H.  i. 
778-86. 

The  political  power  of  the  papacy  sinks  rapidly  to 
*  end  of  period. 

1.  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY,  1309-78.  French  influ- 
ence on  the  papacy,  which  had  been  increasing  for  some 
time  culminates  in  its  complete  domination  by  the 
French.  Benedict  XI  recalled  most  of  the  action  of 
Boniface  VIII  against  Philip  of  France.  The  next 
pope,  Clement  V,  was  a  Frenchman  and  never  left 
the  country  after  his  election  1305,  settling  at  Avignon 
on  border  of  France  1309.  Popes  now  completely 
under  French  influence.  John  XXII  claimed  right 
to  mediate  between  Louis  of  Bavaria  and  Frederick  of 
Austria,  to  appoint  imperial  vicar  for  Italy.  Louis 
repudiated  the  assumption  of  the  pope,  claimed  to  ex- 
ercise authority  in  virtue  of  his  election,  deposed  the 
pope  and  set  up  an  anti-pope.  He  was  himself  excom- 
municated (the  last  emperor  excommunicated)  and  the 


of  Church  History.  125 

empire  laid  under  the  interdict.  The  controversy  pro- 
duced voluminous  literature  on  the  source  of  political 
authority.  (Marsilius  of  Padua  and  William  of 
Occam.)  The  papal  court  luxurious  and  corrupt, 
cf.  Petrarch.  Finally  after  much  outside  pressure 
(Catherine  of  Sienna  and  Briget  of  Sweden)  the  pope 
returned  to  Rome  1378. 

2.  GREAT  SCHISM  1378-1417.  There  had  been  many 
schisms  before,  but  this  is  the  most  serious  and  longest 
in  papal  history.  Urban  VI,  unanimously  elected  at 
Rome,  soon  alienated  the  French  cardinals,  who  de- 
clared the  former  election  void,  and  proceeded  to  elect 
Clement  VII,  who  retired  to  Avignon.  He  was  sup- 
ported by  France,  Naples,  Savoy,  Castile,  Aragon,  Na- 
varre, Scotland  and  Lorraine.  The  rest  of  the  Catholic 
world  supported  the  Roman  pope.  Ruinous  to  religion. 
Public  opinion  finally  forced  the  cardinals,  against  the 

j  protest  of  both  popes,  to  call  the  Council  of  Pisa 
(1409),  which  deposed  both,  and  then  proceeded  to  the 
election  of  another,  Alexander  V.  Result  was  three 
popes,  each  supported  by  various  nations.  Alexander 
was  succeeded  in  1410  by  John  XXIII,  a  profligate. 

.  Forced  by  public  opinion,  he  called  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance (1414-18)  to  (1)  heal  schism,  (2)  put  down 
heresy,  and  (3)  reform  church  in  head  and  members. 
Largest  and  most  brilliant  council  in  history.  The 
council  voted  by  nations  (Italian,  French,  German, 

v  English)  ;  declared  final  supreme  authority  to  rest  in 
the  council.  (1)  John  and  Benedict  XIII  (Avignon) 
were  deposed,  Gregory  XII  (Rome)  persuaded  to  re- 
sign, and  Martin  V  elected,  thus  securing  one  pope  and 
closing  the  schism  (1417).  (2)  John  Huss  and  Jerome 
of  Prague  were  condemned  and  burned,  John  Wye- 


126  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

liffe's  bones  ordered  dug  up  and  burned,  Bohemia  put 
under  ban.     (3)  Little  done  for  reform. 

3.  FROM  1417  TO  1517.  Followers  of  Huss  in  Bohe- 
mia had  broken  into  revolt  on  his  execution.  To  settle 
?  this  war  and  reform  the  church  the  Council  of  Basel 
was  convened  1431.  Bent  on  reform  and  hostile  to  the 
claims  of  the  pope,  he  once  dissolved  it,  then  acknowl- 
edged and  finally  transferred  it  to  Ferrara  1437.  The 
fathers  refused  to  disband,  and  in  1439  deposed  the 
pope  and  elected  another  who  was  not  widely  recog- 
nized. It  closed  1443.  The  ideas  of  the  council  re- 
garding the  relation  of  the  pope  to  the  church  and  to 
civil  government  were  adopted  by  the  French  and 
German  governments  in  pragmatic  sanctions.  In  the 
meantime  a  council  convened  in  Ferrara  (1439  trans- 
ferred to  Florence),  took  up  the  question  of  union  with 
Greek  Church,  the  Emperor,  the  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople, and  the  pope  being  present  in  person.  The 
chief  points  of  difference  were  filioque,  condition  of  the 
blessed  after  death,  leavened  bread,  the  primacy  of  the 
pope.  The  union  was  effected  on  paper,  but  could 
never  be  carried  into  effect  at  Constantinople.  Begin- 
ning with  Nicholas  V  (1447-55),  the  founder  of  the 
Vatican  library,  the  popes  for  nearly  a  century  were  the 
•  leading  patrons  of  the  new  learning,  humanists.  Pius 
II  is  an  excellent  example.  Alexander  VI  (1492-1503), 
a  monster  of  wickedness,  divided  the  new  world  be- 
tween Spanish  and  Portugese.  Julius  II  (1503-13),  a 
warrior,  restored  the  papal  state.  Leo  X  (1513-21), 
son  of  Lorenzo  Medici,  was  a  humanist,  patron  of  art, 
etc.,  without  religion. 


of  Church  History.  127 

III.     INNER  LIFE  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

1.  THEOLOGY.  (References:  K.  Sees.  113,  114;  A. 
ii.  988-99.)  As  we  turn  into  the  fourteenth  cen- 
i  tury  theological  learning  rapidly  decays  until  at  end  of 
period  there  is  no  learning  worth  the  name.  Scholasti-  . 
cism  degenerates  into  hair-splitting  in  questions  of 
casuistry  and  about  unimportant  matters.  Nominalism 
rises  again  in  William  of  Occam  and  is  triumphant 
in  fifteenth  century.  Duns  Scotus,  fl308,  his  pupil 
Occam,  f!349,  Nicholas  of  Cusa,  f!464.  One  of  the 
chief  subjects  of  controversy  was  the  immaculate  con- 
ception of  Mary.  -There  was  little  progress  made  in 
these  two  centuries  in  the  development  of  doctrines. 

A  new  type  of  theology  is  found  in  the  mystics  of 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  chiefly  in  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands  and  among  Dominicans.  Abandon- 
ing dialectics  and  logic,  they  sought  to  know  God  by 
Idirect  intuition  through  contemplation  and  feeling,  the 
illumination  of  the  spirit.    They  preached  in  the  ver- 
Inacular   in   a  popular  way  with  great   effectiveness. 
The  founder  was  Meister  Eckhart  (1260-1327),  born 
Strasburg,  studied  under  Albert  the  Great,  was  a  Do- 
minican, provincial  of  Saxony,  vicar  general  of  Bohe- 
mia ;  teacher  in  Paris,  Strasburg  and  Cologne,  accused 
of  pantheism.     German  theology.     John  Tauler   ( — 
1361),  born  Strasburg,  pupil  of  Eckhart,  Dominican, 
great  popular  preacher.     Henry   Suso    (1295-1366), 
pupil   of   Eckhart,    Dominican,   writer.      Among   the 
Dutch   were   John   of   Ruysbroek    (1298-1381),   and 
Thos.  a  Kempis  (1380-1471),  author  of  De  Imitatione 
Christi.     Mysticism  made  a  deep  impression  on  the 
masses,  who  formed  sects  in  Germany,  the  Netherlands 


128  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

and  elsewhere.    "Friends  of  God,"  were  orthodox,  but 
some  mystics  were  pantheistic  and  libertine. 

2.  WORSHIP.    (References:  K.  Sec.  115;  A.  ii.  1026- 
58;  H.  i.  909-34.)    In  this  period  there  were  few  great 

'preachers  (Tauler,  Vincent  Ferrer)  and  little  preach- 
ing. This  among  Mendicants,  Augustinians  and  the 
sects.  There  arose  Bible  translations,  Bible  histories, 
picture  books,  catechisms,  sacred  plays,  etc.,  which  dis- 

*  seminated  knowledge  of  the  gospel  among  the  people. 
Hymn  writing  in  Latin  decayed,  but  reappeared  in  the 
vernacular.  Popular  and  congregational  singing  ap- 
peared, especially  among  the  flagellants,  Hussites  and 
other  sectaries.  Church  music  was  improved  by  the 
introduction  of  harmony.  Gothic  architecture  contin- 
ued to  prevail  in  Germany,  France  and  England, 
though  the  great  building  age  was  past.  In  Italy  Re- 
naissance architecture  arose  with  such  masters  as  Bra- 
mante  and  Michael  Angelo  (1474-1564).  Foundation 
of  new  St.  Peter's  laid  1506.  Sculpture  (Ghiberti, 
+1455;  Michael  Angelo,  +1564)  and  painting  now 
made  tremendous  progress  and  were  largely  in  the 
service  of  the  church.  Four  schools:  (1)  Florentine 
school,  Giotto  +1336,  Fra  Angelico  +1455,  Leonardo 
da  Vinci  +1519,  Fra  Bartolomeo  +1517,  Michael  An- 
gelo +1564.  (2)  Lombard  or  Venetian:  Bellini  +1516, 
Corregio  +1534,  Titian  +1576.  (3)  Umbrian:  Ra- 
phael +1520  and  others.  (4)  German:  The  Brothers 
van  Eyk,  Albert  Durer  +1528,  and  Hans  Holbein,  Sr., 
+1524. 

3.  CHRISTIAN  LIFE.     (References:     K.  Sec.  117.) 
There     was     decline     in     morals,     a     tendency     to 


of  Church  History.  129 

.break    away    from    the    church,  a  revival  of   skep- 
ticism and  pagan  ideas.     The  traffic   in  indulgences 
to  raise  money   for  various   undertakings  became   a« 
universal     scandal    and     well     nigh     destroyed    dis-j 
cipline.     The    inquisition    was    used    without    mercyj 
against  heretics,  especially  in  France  and  Spain.    The 
Spanish  Inquisition  (Lea's  Hist.  Span.  Inq.),  organize< 
by  Ferdinand  aricl  Isabella  (1480)  was,  under  Torqu< 
mada  (1483-99)  and  Ximines  (1507-17),  the  most  ter- 
rible  tribunal   in   history.    "It   was   directed   specially 
against  Moors  and  Jews,  converted  by  force  and  then' 
suspected    of    apostasy    (Moriscos)  ;    thousands    per- 
ished.    It  did  not  appear  in  Germany  till  1386,  and 
never  with  effectiveness  in  England.     Persecution  of 
witches  was  even  worse  than  that  of  heretics.     The 
church  discouraged  belief  in  witches  till  c.  1200.  Then 
the  belief  grew  rapidly  and  was  encouraged  by  the 
church.    In  1484  the  pope  called  attention  to  the  spread  j 
of  witchcraft,  and  appointed  special  inquisition  for  its  I 
suppression.    The  terrible  work  of  destruction  contin-/ 
ued    among    Catholics,    and    after    the    Reformation, 
among  Protestants  till  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century.    It  is  supposed  that  as  many  as  300$QQ,wom- 
en  perished,  most  of  them  at  the  stake. 

The  morals  of  the  clergy   (A.  ii.  1014-26),  monks 

'and  nuns  were  low.  Many  prelates  lived  in  open  con- 
cubinage and  allowed  the  lower  clergy  to  do  so,  while 
unnatural  sin  was  not  uncommon.  Monasteries  were 
rich,  monks  idle  and  debased.  Franciscans  and  Domin- 
icans ceased  to  be  mendicant,  continually  quarreled 
over  the  immaculate  conception,  while  the  strict  part 
of  the  Franciscans  were  declared  to  be  heretical  and 
persecuted.  The  Knights  Templars  were  dissolved 


130  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

1311  on  a  charge  of  heresy,  sorcery  and  vice,  their 
great  possessions  being  largely  appropriated  by  the 
princes,  their  leaders  burned  as  heretics.  Historians 
4  are  divided  as  to  their  guilt.  Several  new  orders  of 
monks  and  nuns  arose.  Brothers  of  the  Common  Life, 
founded  c.  1382  in  the  Netherlands,  was  a  society  of 
pious  priests  and  laymen,  holding  Catholic  doctrines, 
but  devoted  to  Bible  study,  mystical  contemplation, 
preaching,  teaching,  pastoral  service,  supporting  them- 
selves by  labor.  Thomas  a  Kempis.  This  movement 
I  unconsciously  prepared  the  way  for  the  Reformation. 
Missionary  labor  practically  ceased  in  this  period. 

IV.     SIGNS  AND  HELPS  TO  A  NEW  AGE. 

References:     K.  Sec.  118-20;  H.  ii.  1-114. 

1.  Use  of  GUNPOWDER  imported  from  East,  c.  mid- 
dle thirteenth  century,  completely  changing  the  charac- 
ter of  war  and  putting  peasant  on  equality  with  knight 
in  battle. 

2.  Invention  of  MARINER'S  COMPASS,  c.  1310,  by  Fla- 
vio  Giorja  of  Amain,  making  it  possible  to  launch  out 
on  the  high  seas  with  safety. 

3.  Invention  of  PRINTING,  c.  1450,  by  John  Guten- 
burg,  in  Mainz,  and  paper,  making  books  cheap  and 
plentiful.    Latin  Bible  first  printed  book,  1455. 

4.  DISCOVERIES  on  earth  and  in  the  heavens  broke  up 
men's  fundamental  conceptions  of  things  and  prepared 
the  way  for  religious  changes.    Discovery  of  America, 
1492,  sea  route  to  India,  1498,  Brazil,  1500,  Pacific 
Ocean,  1513.     Magellan  sails  around  earth,  1519-22. 
Copernicus   (1473-1543)  discovered  the  true  view  of 
the  solar  system. 

5.  The  rise  of  a  VERNACULAR  LITERATURE  in  prose 
and  poetry,  which  reached  the  people  as  well  as  the 


of  Church  History.  131 

learned.  In  Italy  are  three  great  men,  all  of  Florence 
—Dante  (1265-1321)  wrote  in  Italian,  "The  Divine 
Comedy,"  and  in  Latin  De  Monarchia;  Petrarch  ( 1304- 
74),  lyric  poet  and  letter  writer,  reviver  of  classical 
studies;  Bocaccio  (1313-75),  writer  of  prose,  some  of 
it  pagan  in  its  morals.  All  three  were  more  or  less 
hostile  to  the  church,  while  the  first  two  held  firmly 
to  church  doctrines  and  ethics.  In  Germany  the  popu- 
lar preachers,  especially  the  mystics,  used  the  vernac- 
ular. In  1494  appeared  Brant's  "Ship  of  Fools,"  in 
which  the  clergy  are  held  up  to  ridicule.  In  England 
French  ceased  to  be  used  during  the  Hundred  Years 
War.  In  1362  English  was  adopted  in  the  courts,  and 
a  new  native  English  literature  began  in  this  period. 
lit  was  hostile  to  the  clergy  and  church,  though  not  to 
Christianity.  Wycliffe  (+1384)  wrote  some  of  his 
works  in  English;  Wm.  Langland's  "Vision  of  Piers 
Plowman"  (1362)  and  "Pierce  the  Plowman's  Creed," 
by  another  author,  are  bitterly  hostile  to  the  church 
and  clergy.  Chaucer  (1340-1400),  "Fount  of  English 
Undefiled,"  ridiculed  the  clergy  in  his  "Canterbury 
Tales." 

6.  RENAISSANCE  OF  CLASSICAL  CULTURE.  The  Re- 
naissance may  be  described  as  a  re-birth  of  ancient  clas- 
1  sical  culture  in  Western  Europe.  The  Greek  language 
and  literature,  the  classical  Latin  language  and  litera- 
ture, classic  architecture,  art  and  philosophy.  It  be- 
gan naturally  in  Italy,  where  there  had  been  a  classic 
past;  was  prosecuted  not  in  the  interest  of  religion, 
but  humanity,  hence  called  humanism,  and  spread  from 
Italy  to  Germany  and  England.  In  Italy  it  began  with 
the  teaching  of  Greek  by  Chrysoloras  (1396),  Bessa- 
rion  and  other  Greeks  (1439  on),  and  especially  by 


132  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

scholars  who  fled  from  Constantinople  1453.  Schools 
of  Platonic  and  peripatetic  philosophy  were  founded 
in  Florence.  With  pagan  literature  came  pagan  public 

*  and  private  morals  and  other  conceptions.  The  church 
and  even  essential  Christianity,  was  neglected,  despised 
or  opposed  (Machiavelli  +1527).  Laurentius  Valla 
(+1457)  started  the  critical  movement  by  denying  the 
genuineness  of  the  Donation  of  Constantine,  the  cor- 
respondence of  Christ  and  Abgar,  the  authenticity  of 
the  Apostles'  Creed,  etc.  Students  from  all  parts  of 

'  Europe  studied  in  Italy,  and  carried  the  new  learning 
back  to  their  homes.  In  Germany  it  found  place 
chiefly  in  the  universities  of  Erfurt,  Heidelberg,  Tubin- 
gen and  Wittenberg  (founded  1502).  Its  most  emi- 
nent representatives  were  Ulrich  von  Hutten  and 
Reuchlin  (1455-1522),  a  great  Hebrew  scholar,  de- 
fender of  Hebrew  literature,  opponent  of  the  monks 
(Epistolae  Obscurorum  Virorum,  1515)  ;  Erasmus  of 
Rotterdam  (1465-1536),  scholar,  literateur,  publisher 
of  New  Testament  in  Greek  (1516  on),  editions  of  the 
Fathers,  "Praise  of  Folly,"  opponent  of  the  schoolmen, 
monks  and  clergy.  In  England  John  Colet  (+1519), 
professor  in  Oxford,  abandoned  scholastic  method  and 
expounded  Bible  from  original  text.  Thos.  More 
(1480-1535)  was  friend  of  humanism,  political  reform- 
er, author  of  Utopia  (1516).  German  and  English 

.  humanism  was  religious,  sought  reform  of  the  morals 
and  abuses  of  the  church,  desired  freedom  and  literary 
excellence ;  but  sought  them  by  ridicule,  invective,  etc., 
not  by  the  preaching  of  the  Scriptures.  Few  of  them 
adopted  Luther's  doctrines.  In  France  humanism  took 
little  hold  till  reign  of  Francis  I,  and  in  Spain  little 


of  Church  History.  133 

except  under  Ximines,  who  published  Complutensian 
Polyglott  (1520). 

Chief  benefits  of  Renaissance  to  religion  were  (1) 

general  enlightenment,   (2)   publication  and  study  of 

1  the  Scriptures  in  the  original,  (3)  revival  of  the  gram- 

matico-historical  method  of  interpretation,  (4)  general 

intellectual  revival — men  began  to  think  again. 

7.  REFORMATORY  MOVEMENTS.  (Ullman — Reform- 
ers before  the  Reformation.) 

The  reformatory  sects  of  the  preceding  period  con- 
tinued into  this,  but  do  not  seem  to  have  had  much 
influence  on  the  Reformation.  The  effort  to  reform 
the  church  through  the  three  reforming  councils  of 
fifteenth  century  was  a  failure.  But  there  were  move- 
ments of  highest  moment.  ( 1 )  In  England  John  Wyc- 
liffe  (1320-84),  "the  morning  star  of  the  Reformation/' 
fellow  and  professor  of  Oxford,  priest  at  Lutterworth, 
condemned  by  the  church  and  dismissed  by  the  uni- 
versity, but  protected  by  the  government,  which  he 
'defended  against  the  assumptions  of  the  papacy.  He 
translated  the  Scriptures  into  English  from  the  Vul- 
gate, wrote  many  tracts  in  English  and  Latin,  rejected 
most  of  the  distinctive  Catholic  doctrines;  e.  g.,  wor- 
ship of  saints,  relics,  images ;  transubstantiation,  indul- 
gences, purgatory,  ban,  interdict,  papal  authority;  af- 
firmed Augustinian  theology,  sole  authority  of  Scrip- 
tures, universal  priesthood  of  believers ;  organized  his 
followers  (Lollards)  and  sent  them  forth  to  preach; 
they  were  practically  suppressed  before  the  Reforma- 
tion. (2)  In  Bohemia,  Bohemian  students,  returning 
home  from  England,  carried  Wycliffe's  writings,  which 
found  acceptance  in  University  of  Prague.  John  Huss 


\ 


134  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

(1369-1415),  professor  of  theology,  a  preacher  with 
popular  gifts  and  power,  accepted  Wycliffe's  theologi- 
cal and  philosophical  views  and  became  leader  of  a 
Bohemian  party,  while  the  Germans  opposed.  Accused 
of  heresy  by  the  clergy,  he  was  protected  by  his  bishop 
and  king  till  1408.  King  Wenzel  determined  to  re- 
main neutral  between  the  popes,  while  the  bishop 
and  the  Germans  in  the  University  supported  the  Ro- 
man pope.  Huss  and  his  party  supported  the  king,  and 
secured  a  decree  giving  the  Bohemians  three  out  of 
four  votes  in  the  control  of  the  university,  an  action 
which  led  the  foreigners  in  the  university  to  withdraw 
and  found  University  of  Leipzig,  1409.  Huss^  now 
rector  of  the  university,  was  supported  by  king,  nobles 
and  magistrates,  while  he  was  condemned  by  the  pope ; 
Prague  was  put  under  the  interdict.  He  attended 
Council  of  Constance  with  emperor's  safe  conduct,  but 
was  arrested,  condemned  and  executed  as  a  heretic, 
1415.  (Jerome  of  Prague,  1416.)  Wrote  many  tracts, 
dependent  on  Wycliffe,  but  not  quite  so  radical,  holding 
transubstantiation,  etc.  The  followers  of  Huss  were 

Iput  under  the  ban  and  the  emperor  ordered  to  destroy 
them.  This  led  to  civil  war  (1420-36).  Hussites 
founded  two  parties:  (1)  Calixtines  or  Utraquists, 
who  demanded  (a)  communion  in  both  kinds,  (b) 
free  preaching  of  pure  gospel  in  the  vernacular,  (c) 
strict  discipline  of  the  clergy,  and  (d)  renunciation  of 
property  by  clergy.  (2)  Taborites,  who  would  have 
no  communion  with  Catholic  church;  led  by  John 
Ziska,  they  were  irresistible.  Destructive  wars  in  Bo- 
hemia and  Germany.  Calixtines  finally  reunited  with 
Catholics  (1431-6),  through  Council  of  Basel.  Ta- 
borites defeated  and  scattered  (1453),  formed  union 


of  Church  History.  135 

of  Bohemians  and  Moravians,  closely  identified  with 
Waldenses.  They  were  terribly  persecuted,  but  at  be- 
ginning of  Reformation  had  several  hundred  congrega- 
tions. (3)  In  the  Netherlands.  John  of  Goch,  in 
Cleves  (+1475),  John  of  Wesel  (+1481),  professor 
at  Erfurt,  preacher  at  Mainz  and  Worms;  John  of 
Wessel  (+1489),  professor  at  Cologne,  Lyons,  Paris, 
Heidelberg,  all  held  views  almost  identical  with  those 
of  Luther  later.  (4)  In  Italy.  Jerome  Savonarola 
(1452-98),  Dominican,  bold  and  eloquent  preacher  of 
repentance,  a  political  and  religious  reformer  of  Flor- 
ence, put  under  ban  1497  and  executed  1498.  Not  so 
radical  religiously  as  those  in  other  countries. 

All  the  above  reformers  held  to  Augustinian  theol- 
ogy,  and  were  hostile  to  the  church  as  then  conducted. 


136  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

BOOK  IV 

MODERN  PERIOD— 1517  TO  PRESENT. 

The  period  has  been  characterized  ( 1 )  In  the  church 
by  a  return  towards  apostolic  Christianity,  by  religious 
strife  and  practical  beneficence,  by  rapid  growth  and 
spread  of  Christianity,  by  division  and  diversity;  (2) 
In  the  state  by  differentiation  and  solidification ;  rise  of 
the  republic  and  of  constitutional  government ;  state  as- 
sumes new  duties;  e.  g.,  education,  care  of  poor  and 
unfortunate,  direction  of  labor,  commerce,  etc.  (3) 
In  social  sphere  by  decay  of  the  nobility  and  rise  of  the 
masses ;  latter  better  housed,  fed,  educated,  more  con- 
scious of  a  place  in  the  world.  (4)  In  the  world  of 
culture  by  spread  of  general  intelligence,  popular  edu- 
cation, large  reading  public,  state  education,  many  uni- 
versities, technical  schools.  (5)  A  period  of  great  dis- 
coveries. (6)  Great  literature  and  philosophical  sys- 
tems. 

FIRST  DIVISION— THE  REFORMATION, 
1517_1648— IN  ENGLAND  TO  1689. 

References:  Fisher,  History  of  the  Reformation;  Hausser, 
Period  of  the  Reformation;  Vol.  ii,  Camb.  Mod.  History; 
Lindsay,  History  of  Reformation,  2  vols. 

GENERAL  REMARKS.  1.  It  was  a  period  of  great 
turmoil,  strife  and  rapid  change.  In  fifty  years  nearly 
half  of  Europe  changed  their  religious  views  and 
church  relations ;  religious  wars.  2.  Reformation  took 
six  forms  or  directions:  (a)  Lutheran,  in  Germany 
and  North  and  East  Europe;  (b)  Zwinglian  in  Ger- 
man-speaking -Switzerland  and  South  Germany;  (c) 


of  Church  History.  137 

Calvinistic  in  French-speaking  Switzerland,  France, 
Netherlands,  parts  of  Germany  and  German-speaking 
Switzerland,  in  Scotland ;  influenced  England  and  other 
English-speaking  lands;  (d)  Anabaptist  spread  over 
much  of  West  Europe;  (e)  English  Reformation;  (f) 
Catholic  or  Counter-Reformation.  3.  Reformation 
was  confined  to  West  or  Roman  Catholic  church ;  East 
or  Greek  Catholic  church,  being  little  affected.  4.  It 
sprang  out  of  the  bosom  of  the  Catholic  church,  not 
from  any  of  the  sects.  All  the  leaders  were  originally 
Catholics,  many  of  them  monks  or  priests.  5.  It  was 
successful  only  where  old  Roman  Empire  had  not  been 
established ;  partially  successful  where  the  land  was 
partially  Romanized ;  complete  failure  where  land  was 
completely  Romanized.  6.  It  was  everywhere  largely 
a  political  movement;  it  succeeded  or  failed  according 
as  it  won  the  various  governments.  No  two  confes- 
sions were  tolerated  in  the  same  territory.  Persecu- 
tion by  all  parties  except  Anabaptists  (But  cf.  Miin- 
ster).  England,  France,  Spain  and  the  Empire  were 
leading  nations;  first  three  well  centralized,  while  the 
Empire  was  an  aggregation  of  small  German  states 
and  free  cities,  nominally  members  of  the  empire,  but 
largely  independent.  Spain  was  wealthy,  proud,  ambi- 
tious ;  France  also ;  England  rising,  while  the  Empire 
was  sinking;  three  able  and  ambitious  rulers,  Henry 
VIII  of  England,  Francis  I  of  France,  and  Charles  V 
of  Spain,  elected  Emperor  1519.  Two  other  important 
political  factors  were  (1)  the  popes,  (2)  the  Turks, 
who  were  exceedingly  aggressive  and  troublesome  in 
Southeast  Europe.  There  was  no  separation  between 
church  and  state,  but  the  state  generally  assumed  con- 
trol over  the  various  reformed  churches.  7.  Mission 


138  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

work.  (1)  Protestants  did  little  mission  work  among 
heathen  (Dutch  in  East  Indian  colonies;  Williams, 
Eliot,  Brainard,  Edwards  and  others  among  American 
Indians),  but  they  translated  the  Bible  into  all  the  lan- 
guages of  Europe.  (2)  Catholics  did  much  mission 
work  among  heathen,  chiefly  in  connection  with  colo- 
nial enterprises  and  through  Dominicans,  Franciscans 
and  the  newly  founded  Jesuits.  Spain,  Portugal  and 
France  furnished  most  of  the  missionary  zeal.  The 
Spanish  worked  in  Southern  North  America,  Central 
and  South  America,  West  Indies  and  Philippines ;  Por- 
tugese in  East  Indies,  South  Africa  and  Brazil ;  French 
along  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Great  Lakes,  in  Canada 
and  Northern  U.  S. ;  Jesuits  carried  on  work  in  India 
and  China  with  conspicuous  success  (cf.  Xavier). 

8.  Ecclesiastical    organization.      (1)   Catholics    in    no 
way  altered  their  organization,  and  succeeded  in  sav- 
ing most  of  it  in  Germany,  even  where  the  masses  of 
the  people  became  Protestants.     (2)  Protestants  adopt- 
ed many  different  forms  of  organization.     Lutherans 
had  no  fixed  form,  Calvinists  adopted  the  presbyterial, 
Church  of  England  kept  the  Catholic,  Anabaptist  was 
never  fully  developed,  Independents  and  English  Bap- 
tists adopted  democratic  congregational  government. 

9.  Theology.     (1)  Catholic  theology  experienced  no 
further  development  during  the  Reformation,  but  was 
crystalized  and  fixed  in  the  Tridentine  Creed.      (2) 
Protestant  theology  agreed  with  Catholics  in  the  doc- 
trine of  God,  Christ  and  Holy  Spirit   (accepting  the 
Apostles,   Nicene   and   Athanasian   creeds),   differing 
chiefly  as  to  the  Bible,  the  church,  the  plan  of  salva- 
tion and  the  future  life ;  denied  the  authority  of  tradi- 
tion, rejected  O.  T.  apocrypha,  asserted  right  of  indi- 


of  Church  History.  139 

vidual  interpretation,  translated  and  recommended  Bi- 
ble to  the  people;  their  theology  was  Augustinian,  in- 
sisting on  justification  by  faith  apart  from  works;  as 
to  the  church  and  its  ordinances,  they  were  badly  di- 
vided, but  reduced  the  means  of  grace  to  two,  the  word 
and  the  sacraments ;  they  denied  the  existence  of  a  spe- 
cial priesthood,  asserting  the  priesthood  of  all  believers, 
denied  purgatory,  indulgences,  transubstantiation,  the 
sacrifice  of  the  mass,  etc.  Their  various  views  were 
incorporated  in  creeds  and  catechisms  from  1530  to 
1650,  during  which  time  all  the  great  creeds  of  Chris- 
tendom, with  few  exceptions,  were  formulated.  Ana- 
baptists were  anti-Augustinian  in  theology,  emphasiz- 
ing free  will  and  the  importance  of  following  Christ. 
10.  Worship.  (1)  Among  Catholics,  no  radical 
changes ;  only  a  few  abuses  removed.  (2)  Among 
Protestants,  worship  was  put  into  the  vernacular;  the 
Bible,  preaching  and  teaching  restored,  the  mass  and 
incense  abolished,  congregational  singing  and  com- 
munion in  both  kinds  restored;  the  number  of  holy 
days  was  greatly  reduced  or  abolished,  a  new  sacred- 
ness  was  given  to  Sunday;  invocation  of  saints,  relics 
and  images  abolished;  so  prayers  for  the  dead;  pil- 
grimages and  shrines  abandoned;  infant  baptism  was 
retained  by  most  Protestants,  but  usually  with  changed 
significance;  Catholic  church  buildings  appropriated 
wherever  possible ;  vestments,  candles  and  written  serv- 
ice widely  but  not  universally  retained. 

11.  Christian  Life.  (1)  Among  Catholics  was  great 
improvement.  Popes  became  models  of  piety  for  Cath- 
olics, and  no  one  of  scandalous  morals  has  since 
reigned ;  the  secular  clergy  were  greatly  improved ;  old 
monastic  orders  were  reformed  and  new  ones  founded, 
notably  the  Jesuits.  (2)  Among  Protestants  all  monas- 


140  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

tic  vows,  for  both  men  and  women,  were  abolished,  the 
clergy  married,  from  lowest  to  highest.  Discipline  for 
moral  lapses  was  widely  restored,  and  was  often  very 
strict,  notably  among  the  Anabaptists  and  Calvinists. 
Christian  benevolence  not  largely  cultivated,  but  in 
general,  Christian  life  was  greatly  improved  by  the 

Reformation. 

» 

A.     THE  LUTHERAN  REFORMATION, 
1517-1648. 

Some  distinctive  features  are  its  rise  in  Electoral 
Saxony,  in  the  heart  of  Germany,  in  the  newly  founded 
University  of  Wittenberg;  started  by  Martin  Luther, 
an  Augustinian  monk,  who  was  professor.  He  began 
by  an  attack  on  abuses,  without  intending  to  break  with 
the  church,  but  soon  advanced  to  the  denial  of  funda- 
mental Catholic  doctrines.  Its  theology  is  found  in 
Luther's  longer  and  shorter  catechisms,  Melanchthon's 
Loci  Communes,  and  in  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
1530;  its  core  is  justification  by  faith;  baptismal  re- 
generation, infant  baptism,  sprinkling,  consubstantia- 
tion ;  communion  in  both  kinds ;  no  uniform  method  of 
organizing,  Luther  caring  little  for  it ;  in  worship,  can- 
dles, vestments,  liturgies,  pericopes  retained,  with  em- 
phasis on  preaching  and  congregational  singing ;  Chris- 
tian life  left  largely  to  the  individual ;  little  church  dis- 
cipline, a  sharp  decline  in  morals  for  a  time.  Luther's 
principle  of  reform  was:  "Retain  all  customs  now  in 
the  church  which  the  Scriptures  do  not  condemn." 

(A)     IN  GERMANY. 

1.  LUTHER'S  LIFE  TO  1517.  (References:  H.  ii. 
115-55;  N.  ii.  3-52;  K.  Sec.  122;  S.  vi.  1-145;  Kostlin, 
Life  of  Luther;  Jacobs,  Life  of  Luther.)  Martin 


of  Church  History.  141 

Luther,  son  of  a  miner,  b.  Nov.  10,  1483,  at  Eisleben, 
studied  at  Mansfield,  Magdeburg,  Eisenach,  law  in 
University  of  Erfurt,  taking  master's  degree  1505 ;  en- 
tered Augustinian  monastery  1505,  ordained  priest 
1507;  influenced  by  Staupitz  to  study  Bible,  Augustine 
and  mysticism ;  strong  religious  experience,  began 
teaching  in  University  of  Wittenberg  1509;  visited 
Rome  1511;  became  D.  D.  1512,  and  began  to  teach 
Bible,  gradually  moving  toward  evangelical  views. 

2.  REFORMATION  1517-25.  (References:  H.  ii. 
156-83;  K.  Sees.  123-125;  N.  ii.  52-93;  A.  iii.  1-68; 
S.  vi.  146-484.)  Sale  of  indulgences  and  conse- 
quent posting  of  ninety-five  theses  by  Luther  October 
31,  1517;  attacked  by  Tetzel  and  Prierias  he  replies; 
summoned  to  Rome  August,  1518,  the  Elector  obtains 
permission  for  him  to  meet  Cajetan,  the  papal  legate, 
at  Augsburg,  October,  1518;  Luther  appeals  to  an  ecu- 
menical council;  Miltitz,  sent  to  Germany,  January, 
1519,  obtains  Luther's  promise  to  keep  silence  if  his 
opponents  do  so ;  Eck  attacks  Luther ;  Leipsic  disputa- 
tion June-July,  1519,  leads  Luther  to  deny  infallibility 
of  pope  and  ecumenical  councils ;  supported  by  Philip 
Melanchthon  (1497-1560)  ;  war  of  pamphlets;  Luther 
publishes  "To  His  Imperial  Majesty  and  the  Christian 
Nobles  of  Germany"  June,  1520;  "Concerning  Chris- 
tian Liberty,"  September,  and  soon  afterward  "The 
Babylonish  Captivity" ;  bull  of  excommunication  se- 
cured by  Eck  June  16,  1520,  publicly  burned  by  Luther 
December  10th ;  Luther  appears  before  Diet  at  Worms 
during  emperor's  first  visit  to  Germany,  April  17,  18, 
1521,  and  on  May  26  was  put  under  ban  of  the  Empire  ; 
on  way  back  to  Wittenberg  was  taken  to  Wartburg  for 


142  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

safety,  where  he  remains  to  March  3,  1522,  writing 
many  tracts  and  translating  N.  T. ;  returns  to  Witten- 
berg because  of  disturbance  by  Zwickau  prophets ;  con- 
troversy with  Henry  VIII  in  1522;  Knight's  War 
1522-3;  1525  marriage  of  Luther;  Peasants'  War  (see 
the  twelve  articles),  break  with  Humanists  (Erasmus), 
with  Anabaptists,  with  Zwingli  and  his  followers. 

3.  REFORMATION,  1526-32.  (References:  H.  ii.  184- 
200;  K.  Sees.  126:5  to  129;  132;  133:1,  2;  N.  ii.  93- 
108;  A.  iii.  68-87;  S.  vi.  484-744.)  Political  events  in- 
fluenced the  history.  War  with  Francis  (1521-4)  made 
it  impossible  for  Charles  V  to  execute  ban  on  Luther ; 
German  diet  refused  to  do  so  (1522  and  1524).  In 
1524  Catholic  nobles  formed  league  at  Regensburg  to 
enforce  edict  of  Worms;  strengthened  (1525)  at  Des- 
sau ;  in  1526  Protestant  nobles  form  league  for  defense 
at  Torgau.  Francis  I  captured  at  Pavia  (1525)  by 
Charles  V,  was  released  March  17,  1526,  on  signing 
humiliating  Treaty  of  Madrid  in  favor  of  the  emperor. 
Released  from  his  oath  by  pope ;  war  broke  out  again 
(1527-9).  In  1526  Diet  of  Spires  practically  revoked 
edict  of  Worms  by  giving  each  prince  freedom  to  act 
as  he  could  justify  himself  before  God  and  the  Em- 
peror. Under  protection  of  this  action  various  princes 
and  cities  of  North  Germany  proceeded  (1527-30)  to 
reform  worship  and  organize  territorial  churches  on 
the  model  drawn  up  by  Luther  for  Electoral  Saxony 
m  1526. 

Charles  chastised  the  pope  by  sacking  Rome  May, 
1527;  peace  made  with  the  pope  at  Barcelona  June  20, 
1529,  and  with  Francis  I  at  Cambray,  in  July;  Turks 
driven  back  from  Vienna  October;  this  left  Charles 


of  Church  History.  143 

free  to  punish  Protestants;  Pack  episode  1527-8.  At 
Diet  of  Spires,  1529,  Catholics  were  in  majority,  re- 
scinded action  of  1526  and  demanded  execution  of  edict 
of  Worms  against  Luther ;  evangelicals  protested,  hence 
name  Protestants;  they  seek  union  for  protection.  Con- 
ference between  Luther  and  Zwingli  at  Marburg  Sep- 
tember 29f,  1529;  pope  crowns  Charles  at  Bologna, 
February  24,  1530;  Diet  of  Augsburg  1530;  Augsburg 
Confession  (CC.  Ill  3-73),  its  origin  and  character: 
emperor  gives  Protestants  till  April  15,  1531,  to  return 
to  the  church ;  Protestants  form  powerful  Schmalkald 
League  February,  1531,  composed  of  Lutherans,  S. 
German  cities  and  some  Catholics,  and  having  support 
of  France,  England,  Denmark  and  Zapolya  of  Hun- 
gary ;  Turks  again  advanced  into  Hungary ;  all  this 
forced  Charles  to  grant  Peace  of  Nuremberg  July. 
1532,  granting  peace  till  a  general  council  should  be 
called  to  settle  the  question. 

4.  REFORMATION  1532-55.  (References:  H.  ii.  199- 
218;  N.  ii.  108-122;  K.  Sees.  133:3  to  137a;  A.  ii.  109- 
43.)  The  promised  council  was  not  convened  until 
1545,  and  in  the  meantime,  protected  by  Peace  of 
Nuremberg,  Protestantism  spread  rapidly;  Wurtem- 
berg,  Anhalt  and  Pomerania  reformed  1534;  Bran- 
denburg and  Ducal  Saxony,  1539;  Archbishop  of 
Cologne,  1542;  Brunswick  and  Duke  of  Julich-Cleve, 
1543;  many  free  cities  during  this  time.  Bigamy  of 
Philip  of  Hesse,  1540.  Many  efforts  at  union  between 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  culminating  in  conference  at 
Regensburg,  1541.  Peace  of  Crespy  with  Francis  I, 
September,  1544;  truce  with  Turks  October,  1545; 
opening  of  Council  of  Trent  December,  1545;  Luther's 


144  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

death  February  18,  1546.  Schmalkald  war  1546-7; 
treachery  of  Maurice,  defeat  of  Protestants  at  Muhl- 
berg;  forcible  introduction  of  the  Augsburg  Interim 
and  expulsion  of  Lutheran  preachers,  1548;  Leipzig 
Interim  1549;  1551  Maurice  betrayed  and  defeated  the 
emperor;  treaty  of  Passau,  1552;  continued  reverses 
of  the  emperor  and  peace  of  Augsburg  (1555)  between 
Catholics  and  Lutherans.  (1)  Princes  to  have  abso- 
lute control  over  the  religion  of  their  subjects.  (2) 
Subjects  of  other  than  the  faith  established  by  law 
should  have  right  to  emigrate  without  loss  of  honor  or 
goods.  (3)  A  Catholic  prelate  becoming  Protestant 
must  resign  and  give  place  to  a  man  satisfactory  to  the 
hierarchy.  (4)  In  free  cities,  where  both  faiths  ex- 
isted, they  should  so  continue. 

Before  death  of  Luther  divisions  and  sharp  theolog- 
ical controversies  had  begun  among  his  followers  (N. 
ii.  307-28;  K.  Sec.  140f ;  H.  ii.  500-10;  A.  iii.  315-25), 
and  they  continued  to  increase  in  volume  and  bitter- 
ness. They  were  occasioned  by  the  relations  of  Luth- 
eranism  with  Calvinism  on  one  side  and  Catholicism  on 
the  other.  The  more  important  of  these  controversies 
were  (a)  Antinomian  (1537-41),  continued  by  the  Ma- 
joristic  controversy  (1551-62)  on  the  place  of  the  law 
in  the  Christian  system;  (b)  Osiander  controversy  on 
justification  (1549-56),  in  which  Luther's  views  of 
justification  and  sanctification  were  confounded;  (c) 
Synergistic  controversy  (1555-67)  over  man's  part  in 
.his  own  salvation;  (d)  Adiaphoristic  controversy 
(1548-55)  over  things  essential  and  unessential;  (e) 
communication  of  idioms,  ubiquity  of  Christ's  body; 
(f)  Crypto-Calvinism  in  the  supper,  1552-74;  1586-92. 
These  controversies  were  violent,  leading  to  frequent 


of  Church  History.  145 

deposition  and  banishment  of  pastors  and  professors, 
and  almost  to  bloodshed.  They  were  somewhat  allayed 
by  the  Formula  of  Concord,  1576  (CC.  Ill  93-180), 
which  was  formally  promulgated  by  many  Lutheran 
princes  in  1580,  and  was  a  triumph  of  strict  Lutheran- 
ism.  Dead  and  fighting  orthodoxy  led  to  the  rise  of  a 
mystical  piety  closely  akin  to  pantheism  (H.  ii.  519-28). 
Jacob  Bohme,  d.  1634;  John  Valentine  Andreae,  d. 
1654;  George  Calixtus,  d.  1656.  The  division  and 
strife  within  the  Lutheran  ranks,  as  also  between  Luth- 
erans and  Calvinists,  continued  through  the  period  and 
greatly  weakened  the  Protestants  during  Thirty  Years' 
War.  But  Protestantism  made  progress  in  South 
Germany  to  end  of  sixteenth  century. 

(B)     IN  SCANDINAVIAN  COUNTRIES. 

References:  N.  ii.  298-301;  K.  Sec.  139:1,2;  A.  iii.  175-91-, 
H.  ii.  357-9. 

1.  SWEDEN.  By  Union  of  Colmar  (1397)  Denmark 
Sweden  and  Norway  formed  one  kingdom  under  rule 
of  Danish  kings.  Nobility  and  clergy  were  rich  and 
powerful,  king  weak.  Sweden  had  rebelled  once 
(1448-57),  and  again  under  Sten  Sture.  The  king, 
Christian  II,  defeated  Swedes;  "Stockholm  Bath  of 
Blood"  (1520)  ;  Gustavus  Vasa  returning  from  Ger- 
many 1521,  is  elected  king  of  Sweden  1523,  and  gradu- 
ally wins  independence  of  the  country;  Protestantism 
preached  and  Bible  translated  by  Olaf  and  Lars  Peter- 
son and  Lars  Anderson ;  king  forces  country  to  accept 
Reformation  1527;  monks  banished,  church  property 
confiscated  to  nobles  and  king ;  liturgy  in  the  vernacu- 
lar ;  clerical  marriage  permitted ;  episcopal  organization 
continued,  most  of  the  bishops  accepting  the  reform. 


146  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

Gradually  reform  was  introduced  throughout  the  coun- 
try. Vasa  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Eric  XIV  (1560- 
8),  and  he  by  his  brother  John  III  (1568-92),  who, 
under  the  influence  of  his  Polish  wife  and  the  Jesuitb, 
sought  to  restore  Catholicism.  His  son  Sigismund  III 
(also  king  of  Poland)  was  openly  Catholic,  was  de- 
feated (1600)  and  succeeded  by  his  Protestant  uncle, 
Charles  IX.  This  fixed  Sweden  among  Protestant  na- 
tions. Under  Gustavus  Adolphus  (1611-32)  Sweden 
became  world  power,  helping  Protestants  in  Thirt) 
Years'  War. 

2.  DENMARK.  King  Christian  II  (1513-23),  for  po- 
litical and  religious  reasons,  favored  the  Reformation ; 
1521  appeals  to  Rome  were  forbidden ;  clergy  were  per- 
mitted to  marry,  the  monasteries  reformed  and  the 
power  of  the  bishops  limited.  The  people  were  un- 
favorable to  reform  and  hated  the  king.  In  1523  he 
was  deposed,  the  reform  overturned  and  his  uncle, 
Frederick  I  (1523-33)  chosen  king.  A  Protestant  at 
heart,  he  swore  to  protect  the  Catholic  faith.  He  pro- 
tected Lutheran  preachers,  and  Hans  Tausen  (1524 
onward)  preached  Lutheranism;  1527  toleration  grant- 
ed to  Lutherans ;  clergy  restricted  and  right  of  clerical 
marriage  granted;  Scriptures  in  Danish  circulated; 
confession  of  faith  1530;  Christian  III  (1533-59)  was 
openly  Protestant,  imprisoned  and  deposed  all  Catholic 
bishops  and  secularized  all  monasteries  in  1536.  Bu- 
genhagen  (1537)  crowned  the  king  and  ordained  seven 
Protestant  bishops;  this  approved  by  Diet  1539.  Diet 
of  Copenhagen  (1544)  confiscated  all  Catholic  prop- 
erty ;  disfranchised  Catholics  and  banished  their  clergy. 


of  Church  History.  147 

3.  NORWAY    for    a    time    supported    Christian    II 
(turned  Catholic  1530)  and  Catholicism,  but  1536  ac- 
cepted Christian  III  and  was  quickly  reformed. 

4.  ICELAND  accepted   Lutheran  bishops   1540,   also 
New  Testament.     Catholics  rose   1548,  but  by   1554 
Protestants  victorious. 

(C)     EASTERN   EUROPE. 

References:    N.  ii.  301-7;  A.  iii.  156-75;  H.  ii.  361-3;  K. 
Sec.  139:18-20. 

1.  PRUSSIA,  the  ecclesiastical  state  of  the  Teutonic 
Order,  was  reformed  and  made  hereditary  duchy  in 
1525. 

2.  POLAND  was  a  weak  elective  monarchy,  with  pow- 
erful nobles,  corrupt  and  ignorant  clergy.     Jews  and 
Bohemian  Brethren  present  in  large  numbers.    Luther- 
an views  and  writings  introduced  early  by  Polish  stu- 
dents  educated   at  Wittenberg.     King   Sigismund   I 
(1506-48)  vigorously  opposed.     Reading  of  Luther's 
writings  forbidden  1 523 ;  persecution  of  various  kinds, 
even  death,  but  growth,  nevertheless.    From  1540  on, 
Calvinism   made  progress.     Sigismund   Augustus   II 
(1548-72)  more  tolerant.     Polish  N.  T.  1551f ;  in  ac- 
cordance with  action  of  national  assembly  1555,  the 
king  demanded  of  the  pope  a  national  council,  permis- 
sion for  priestly  marriage,  mass  in  vernacular,  cup  for 
the  laity  and  abolition  of  annats.    Protestants  now  had 
upper  hand;  John  a  Lasco;  Socinians  from  Italy  es- 
tablished at  Racov,  with  university  and  press,  grew 
rapidly.     In  1570  Bohemian  Brethren,  Lutherans  and 


148  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

Calvinists  united,  and  1573  "Peace  of  the  Dessidents" 
assured  peace  between  the  Catholics  and  Protestants.. 
Protestant  divisions,  the  Jesuits  and  King  Sigismund 
III  (1587-1632)  turned  tide  against  Protestants;  never 
again  regained  the  ascendency. 

3.  BOHEMIA  AND  MORAVIA.    Hussites  and  Bohemian 
Brethren  predominated  at  outbreak  of  Reformation. 
Lutheran  doctrines  acceptable  to  former,  but  not  to 
latter;  Anabaptists  present  1526  onward;  Bohemian 
Brethren  ceased  rebaptizing  1535  to  escape  persecution 
of  Anabaptists,  and  in  1542  reached  agreement  with 
Luther;  after  Peace  of  Augsburg  1555,  most  Protest- 
ants became  Lutherans  for  protection.  Under  Maximil- 
ian II   (1564-76)  toleration  and  rapid  growth;  Bible 
translated  and  sacred  songs  written;  Calvinism  intro- 
duced and  grew  rapidly.    To  resist  Jesuits  in  1575  all 
parties  united  in  a  confession  of  faith  and  federated 
government.    In  1609  they  forced  the  fanatical  Catho- 
lic king,  Rudolph  II  (1576-1612),  to  grant  them  char- 
ter of  complete  religious  freedom  and  a  body  of  "De- 
fensors"  at  Prague;  nine-tenths  of  the  people  were     I/ 
Protestants.    Infraction  of  this  charter  (1618)  started 
Thirty  Years'  War,  in  which  Protestants  were  ruined. 

4.  HUNGARY  AND  TRANSYLVANIA.    Lutheranism  in- 
troduced into  Hungary  by  students  from  Wittenberg, 
1524  on;  King  Louis  II,  a  vigorous  opponent,  was 
killed  in  battle  of  Mohacz  with  Turks,  1526;  part  of 
the  land  fell  under  the  Turks ;  John  Zapolya  and  Ferdi- 
nand, contestants  for  the  throne,  both  opposed  reform, 
but  progress  was  made,  nevertheless ;  Hungarian  N.  T. 
1541;  Lutheran  confession  1545;  Calvinistic  doctrines 
introduced  among  Magyars   early;   Calvinistic  creed 
1557;    also    Anti-trinitarians    and    Anti-pedobaptists ; 


of  Church  History.  149 

Protestant  controversy  gave  Jesuits  their  opportunity, 
1560  on;  complete  religious  peace  1606;  by  1634  Cath- 
olics regained  majority  in  Hungarian  Diet;  in  Tran- 
sylvania Lutheran  doctrine  preached  1521  on;  John 
Honter  (1498-1549)  evangelized  Kronstadt  and  vicin- 
ity 1533  on;  persecution;  religious  freedom  1557. 

(D)  SOUTH  GERMANY. 

Lutheranism  early  penetrated  into  Austria,  Tyrol, 
Salsburg,  Styria,  etc.,  and  made  considerable  progress ; 
Anabaptists,  present  from  1526  on,  were  bitterly  per- 
secuted; nobles  protected  Lutherans  after  Peace  of 
Augsburg  (1555)  ;  Ferdinand  grew  more  tolerant  in 
old  age;  Maximilian  (1564-76)  granted  them  liberal 
treatment  and  there  was  rapid  growth.  Under  suc- 
ceeding emperors  Protestantism  was  largely  stamped 
out  by  persecution  and  the  Jesuits.  The  dukes  of  Ba- 
varia were  most  determined  opponents  of  reformation, 
and  never  allowed  it  to  get  footing  in  their  land. 

(E)  ITALY  AND  SPAIN. 
References:   N.  ii.  291-8;  K.  Sec.  139:21-26;  H.  ii.  349-54. 

1.  ITALY  (McCrie,  Thos.t  Progress  and  Suppression 
of  the  Reformation  in  Italy,  etc.)  Composed  of  numer- 
ous states,  but  subservient  to  papal  influence;  church 
corrupt,  secularized;  humanism  paganized,  destructive 
to  faith  and  morals.  Luther's  early  writings  widely  read 
in  Italy,  so  "The  Benefits  of  Christ's  Death."  "Orato- 
ry of  Divine  Love"  founded  at  Rome  1523  by  promi- 
nent young  clergymen  to  promote  reform;  Italian 
translation  of  Bible  1530;  Protestant  churches  at  Na- 


150  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

pies  and  Venice,  and  Protestant  circles  at  Modena, 
Florence,  Bologna,  Padua,  Verona,  etc.  Princess  Renee 
of  Ferrara  and  Juan  Valdez,  secretary  of  the  Spanish 
Viceroy  of  Naples,  active  in  protecting  and  promoting 
Protestant  views.  Bernardino  Ochino  (1487-1566), 
general  of  the  Capuchin  order,  and  Peter  Martyr,  an 
honored  Augustinian,  and  other  prominent  men  con- 
verted to  Protestant  views.  Many  anti-pedobaptist 
(Socinian)  congregations  in  territory  of  Venice  and 
North  Italy  1550  on.  After  conference  at  Regensburg, 
1541,  reaction.  Jesuit  order  1540;  Inquisition  reorgan- 
ized in  Italy  1542 ;  Council  of  Trent  1545  on.  All  lead- 
ers forced  to  flee ;  Protestantism  gradually  suppressed, 
before  end  of  century  had  disappeared.  The  Walden- 
ses  in  Italy  and  France  were  protestantized  1532  on. 

2.  SPAIN.  (McCrie,  Progress  and  Suppression  of  the 
Reformation  in  Spain;  Prescott,  History  of  the  Reign 
of  Philip  II ;  Robertson,  Charles  V)  had  strong  central 
government,  was  rich,  ambitious  and  powerful;  union 
of  Castile  and  Aragon  1481 ;  Conquest  of  the  Moors 
1492;  discovery  of  America  1492;  Navarre  annexed 
1512;  Sardinia,  Sicily  and  Southern  Italy  and  Nether- 
lands recently  added;  1519  King  Charles  elected  em- 
peror. Spanish  church  had  been  reformed  by  Ximines 
(1436-1517),  was  ferocious  from  long  fighting,  and 
used  the  powerful  Inquisition  (Lea,  Spanish  Inquisi- 
tion). Lutheranism  introduced  by  court  officials,  who 
attended  Charles  to  Germany;  Seville  and  Valladolid 
chief  centers,  but  Protestants  at  many  other  points; 
Spanish  N.  T.  1543;  a  few  prominent  clergymen  be- 
came Protestants.  Some  persecution  under  Charles  V ; 
extermination  under  Philip  II  1556  on;  Protestants 
disappeared  before  end  of  century. 


of  Church  History.  151 

B.     ZWINGLIAN  REFORMATION. 

References:  N.  ii.  122-48;  H.  ii.  219-70;  K  Sec.  130;  A. 
iii.  87-109;  S.  vii.  1-222;  Jackson,  Huldreich  Z,  N.  Y.  1901; 
Baur,  Z's  Theologie,  Halle  '85. 

• 

1.  CHARACTERISTICS.     (1)  It  had  its  center  at  Zu- 
rich and  was  limited  geographically  to  Northern  Switz- 
erland and  Southern  Germany ;  the  only  type  of  reform 
which  lost  its  independent  existence,  being  later  ab- 
sorbed in  the  Calvinistic  movement.     (2)  Church  was 
subjected  to  state;  mass  abolished,  monasteries  dis- 
solved, etc.,  by  cantonal  governments.    But  the  church 
had  independent  synodal  organization  and  was  not  so 
abjectly  dependent  as  in  Germany.     (3)   It  was  more 
biblical  than  Luther's  reform.    "All  that  does  not  find 
express  warrant  in  Scripture  must  be  rejected."     Its 
theology  was  Augustinian,  emphasizing  election  and 
predestination,  but  produced  no  great  work  on  theolo- 
gy.    (4)    Ordinances  were  symbols,  not  vehicles,  of 
grace.    Infant  baptism  retained,  not  because  it  effected 
salvation,  but  succeeded  circumcision  as  the  sign  of  the 
Christian  covenant ;  immersion  recognized  as  the  prim- 
itive mode,  but  not  practiced.    The  supper  was  a  mem- 
orial of  Christ's  death.     (5)   Worship  was  made  very 
simple.    Pictures,  altars,  candles,  organs,  etc.,  removed, 
preaching  emphasized,  singing  abandoned  for  a  time, 
all  holy  days  except  Sunday,  Christmas,  Good  Friday, 
Easter  and  Pentecost  abandoned.     Communion  four 
times  a  year.   (6)  Christian  life  improved.  Monasteries 
abolished,   many   priests,   monks   and   nuns   married; 
Christian  morals  emphasized. 

2.  CONDITIONS  favorable.    The  Swiss  Confederation 
founded  1291,  nominally  part  of  the  empire,  but  really 


152  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

independent,  was  composed  of  thirteen  cantons,  with 
subject  territory  and  formed  a  loose  federation.  In 
local  matters  each  canton  was  independent,  while  mat- 
ters of  common  interest  were  managed  by  a  federal 
council  composed  of  two  from  each  canton.  The 
people  were  brave,  lovers  of  freedom,  but  mercenary 
soldiers;  humanism  at  Basel,  Zurich,  Berne,  etc.; 
church  corrupt,  badly  organized  (six  bishops  only)  ; 
weak. 

3.  HISTORY.  Zwingli,  b.  Wildhaus,  1484 ;  good  fam- 
ily, educated  at  Berne,  Vienna,  Basel ;  pastor  at  Glarus 
1506,  Einsiedeln  1516,  Zurich  January  1,  1519;  conver- 
sion; began  study  of  New  Testament  Greek  1513; 
preached  against  Samson  1518;  1520  Council  of  Zurich 
granted  freedom  to  preach  from  Bible;  1522  Zwingli 
demanded  privilege  of  marriage,  and  certain  citizens  ate 
meat  in  fast  time;  disputation  (Sixty-seven  articles, 
CC.  iii.  196-210)  with  Catholics  January  23,  1523,  fol- 
lowed by  marriage  of  clergy,  opening  of  convents, 
translation  of  baptismal  service;  second  disputation 
October  26;  images,  altars,  statues  destroyed,  relics 
buried  1524;  mass  suppressed,  supper  in  both  kinds, 
monasteries  converted  into  schools  1525;  rise  of  Ana- 
baptists, beginning  of  strife  with  Luther  1525,  Mar- 
burg Conference  1529. 

Reform  doctrines  appeared  early  in  other  cantons, 
but  after  disputation  at  Baden  May,  1526,  the  federal 
council  decided  against  Reformation,  which,  however, 
continued  to  make  progress.  After  disputation  at  Berne 
1 528  reform  was  introduced  into  this  the  most  powerful 
canton,  and  was  thoroughly  organized  by  1532,  Ber- 
thold  Haller  and  Sebastian  Meyer  being  leaders ;  Basel, 
seat  of  a  university  and  printing  presses,  home  of  Eras- 
mus and  humanism,  early  received  gospel  from  Wyt- 


of  Church  History.  153 

tenbach,  Capito,  Reublin,  but  hesitated  until  under 
(Ecolampadius  religious  freedom  was  attained  1527; 
reform  introduced  1529  with  a  storm  of  iconoclasm; 
St.  Gall,  under  leadership  of  Vadian,  received  gospel 
1524  on,  and  was  thoroughly  reformed  1527-8;  Appen- 
zel,  S chaff haus en  and  Graubauden  followed. 

The  tension  led  to  war,  first  of  the  religious  wars  of 
the  Reformation.  In  1528  the  five  forest  cantons 
(Catholic)  formed  leagues  among  themselves,  and  in 
1529  alliance  with  Ferdinand  of  Austria.  The  Prot- 
estant cantons  did  likewise  with  Protestant  powers; 
first  Cappel  war  1529;  bloodshed  narrowly  averted, 
peace  favorable  to  Protestants;  second  Cappel  war, 
1531 ;  Zwingli  killed  October  11 ;  peace  unfavorable  to 
Protestants ;  Catholicism  restored  in  some  places ;  Hen- 
ry Bullinger  succeeded  Zwingli ;  first  Helvetic  Confes- 
sion (CC.  iii.  211-31)  drawn  up  by  several  theologians 
1536  to  express  the  common  Swiss  faith.  In  consensus 
of  Zurich  1549  Calvin  and  Bullinger  and  their  follow- 
ers reached  agreement  on  the  Eucharist,  thus  complet- 
ing the  Calvinistic  conquest  of  Switzerland;  second 
Helvetic  Confession  (CC.  iii.  233-306,  translated  Vol. 
i,  396-420),  drawn  up  by  Bullinger  1566  and  accepted 
by  the  Swiss,  the  Palatinate  and  other  countries. 
Strasburg,  Constance,  Memmingen,  Lindau  and  other 
South  German  cities  deeply  affected  by  Zwingli's  views. 
After  1549  the  movement  was  absorbed  into  that  of 
Calvin. 

C.     CALVINISTIC  REFORMATION. 
I.     GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 

1.  It  rose  in  Geneva,  which  remained  center  of  influ- 
ence until  after  Calvin's  death;  spread  over  France, 


154  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

Netherlands,  Scotland,  parts  of  Switzerland,  Germany 
and  Eastern  Europe ;  deeply  influenced  English  Refor- 
mation and  all  English-speaking  peoples ;  most  aggres- 
sive and  progressive  type  of  Protestantism;  mediated 
between  Lutheran  and  Zwinglian  views. 

2.  CHURCH  AND  STATE  not  separated,  but  church 
more  nearly  independent  than  among  Lutherans ;  even 
dominated  the  civil  authority  in  Geneva. 

3.  POLITY  was  presbyterial.     (1)  Local  church  had 
pastor,  elders  and  deacons ;  was  ruled  by  session  elected 
by  people ;  (2)  presbytery  composed  of  representatives 
from  various  sessions ;  (3)  general  assembly — some  va- 
riations from  country  to  country.    Formed  a  series  of 
legislative  and  judicial  bodies;  polity  regarded  as  di- 
vinely revealed  in  Bible. 

4.  THEOLOGY  started  from  the  absoluteness  of  God ; 
emphasized  predestination,  election,  decrees,  depravity 
and  helplessness  of  man,  impotence  of  the  will,  salva- 
tion by  grace,  perseverance  of  saints.    Found  in  Cal- 
vin's Institutes  (1536)  and  many  creeds. 

5.  ORDINANCES.     Baptism  does  not  effect  regenera- 
tion, but  is  a  sign  and  seal  of  God's  grace,  a  token  of 
purification.     Infants  of  Christians  are  to  be  baptized 
because  they  are  in  the  covenant  of  grace  with  their 
parents ;  immersion  was  the  primitive  mode,  but  is  not 
essential.    In  the  supper  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
were  partaken  of  spiritually  and  by  faith ;  not  with  the 
mouth  and  not  by  the  unbeliever — a  view  midway  be- 
tween Luther  and  Zwingli. 

6.  Catholic  elements  of  WORSHIP  removed — altars, 
candles,  pictures,  etc.;  vestments  retained  in  places; 
liturgy  with  some  freedom,  emphasis  on  preaching  and 


of  Church  History.  155 

catechetical  teaching,  singing  Psalms;  holy  days  abol- 
ished, Sunday  (Sabbath)  strictly  observed. 

7.  CHRISTIAN  LIFE  very  strict ;  social  and  moral  life 
revolutionized ;  insisted  on  renewed  life  and  strict  dis- 
cipline ;  here  possibly  the  greatest  contribution  of  Cal- 
vinism. 

II.     LIFE  OF  CALVIN  AND  REFORM  OF  FRENCH 
SWITZERLAND. 

References:  N.  ii.  200-25;  H.  ii.  271-304;  K.  Sec.  138; 
S.  vii.  223-882;  A.  iii.  143-55;  Walker,  Jno.  Calvin,  1906;  H. 
M.  Baird,  Theodore  Beza,  1899. 

1.  JOHN    CALVIN    (1509-64),   b.    Noyon,   Picardy, 
France,  of  good  family;  educated  for  priest  at  Paris, 
and  early  held  benefice;  1529  decided  to  study  law,  at 
Orleans  and  Bourges;  interested  in  classical  literature 
and  New  Testament ;  taught  by  Wolmar ;  gradually  be- 
came more  interested  in  religious  things,  converted 
1533,  forced  to  leave  Paris,  imprisoned  at  Noyon;  es- 
caped to  Angouleme,  Nerac,  Poitiers,  Paris ;  meets  Le 
Fevre,    Olivetan    and    other    reformers;    persecution 
aroused  by  "Placards"  again  forced  him  to  flee,  1534; 
Strasburg,  Basel  (1535),  where  appeared  "Institutes" 
(1536),  dedicated  to  Francis  I;  visits  Duchess  Renee 
at  Ferrara,  pressed  into  service  in  Geneva  by  Farel, 
1536. 

2.  REFORM  OF  GENEVA,  NEUCHATEL  AND  LAUSANNE. 
Geneva,  long  governed  by  its  bishops  and  the  Count  of 
Savoy,  had  gained  its  independence  (1526)  and  made 
alliance  with  Berne  and  the  Swiss.    This  opened  way 
for  Wm.  Farel   (1489-1565),  Peter  Viret  (1511-71), 
and  Antoine  Froment  to  preach  gospel  (1532  on)  ;  re- 
form officially  adopted  1535-6,  mass  abolished,  images 


156  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

and  relics  removed,  bishop  banished,  all  Catholic  wor- 
ship forbidden,  school  and  hospital  founded,  daily  ser- 
mons, simple  communion  and  strict  discipline  intro- 
duced. 

3.  CALVIN  IN  GENEVA  (1536-64).  Calvin  came  to 
Geneva  July,  1536,  introduced  new  church  order,  re- 
formed catechism,  banished  Anabaptists  1537;  oppo- 
sition to  Calvin;  banished  1538;  at  Strasburg  1538-41; 
disorders  and  Catholic  aggressions  at  Geneva;  returns 
to  Geneva  1541,  receiving  ovation;  drew  up  "ecclesias- 
tical ordinances"  and  civil  code;  church  governed  by 
consistory  of  six  ministers  and  twelve  laymen  nomi- 
nated by  the  ministers,  with  jurisdiction  over  discipline, 
serious  cases  being  turned  over  to  the  civil  courts; 
four  church  officers — Ministers,  elected  by  college  of 
ministers  and  confirmed  by  the  council ;  elders,  deacons 
and  teachers.  "Genevan  catechism"  and  liturgy  1542; 
rigid  discipline;  renewed  opposition  till  1555;  execu- 
tion of  Servetus  1553;  high  character  of  Geneva  con- 
tinued two  centuries  till  Rousseau  and  Voltaire ;  Calvin, 
widely  influential,  spent  his  old  age  in  peace  and  honor. 

III.     REFORMATION  IN  FRANCE. 

References:  N.  ii.  225-34;  480-8;  H.  ii.  305-28;  K.  Sec. 
139:13-17;  Sec.  153:4;  A.  in.  270-84;  Baird,  H.  M.,  History 
of  the  Rise  of  Huguenots  in  France,  1879;  Huguenots  and 
Henry  of  Navarre,  1886;  Huguenots  and  Revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  1896. 

1.  CONDITIONS.  France  a  well  organized,  central- 
ized kingdom;  Francis  I,  brilliant,  able,  favorable  to 
humanism ;  the  church  rich,  corrupt,  oppressive,  hated ; 
its  freedom  (Gallican  liberties;  Pragmatic  sanctions, 


of  Church  History.  157 

1269  and  1438)  lost  by  Concordat  1516,  king  nominat- 
ing all  higher  officers  and  pope  taking  revenues. 

2.  HISTORY  OF  REFORM.  (I)  To  1559.  Earliest  re- 
formers were  Jacques  Le  Fevre,  a  humanist  who  wrote 
commentaries  on  Psalms  and  Romans,  taught  justifica- 
tion by  faith,  denied  tran substantiation,  translated 
New  Testament  1523,  Old  Testament  1525;  Briconnet, 
Bishop  of  Meaux,  Wm.  Farel  and  others  in  Meaux. 
In  1521  Sorbonne  condemned  Luther's  writings,  Par- 
liament of  Paris  ordered  them  burned ;  king  favorable 
to  reform  1525-8,  hostile  1528-33  ;  Cop  and  Calvin  flee ; 
favorable  1533-4.  Placards,  October  18,  1534,  embit- 
tered king ;  persecution,  death  and  flight  of  many ; 
Protestant  books  prohibited  in  France  1542;  nearly 
4,000  Waldenses  butchered  in  Southeastern  France 
1545.  Persecution  continued  with  brief  cessations 
throughout  reign  of  Francis,  but  Protestants  increased. 
Calvin's  influence  strongly  felt  from  1536  on,  many 
preachers  and  colporteurs  from  Geneva.  Henry  II 
(1547-59)  more  stringent;  chambre  ardente  1547; 
Edict  of  Chateaubriand  1551 ;  Reformed  began  to  or- 
ganize churches,  c.  1555.  a.  Local  congregation  with 
deacons,  elders  (chosen  by  people  and  forming  a  con- 
sistory) and  minister  (chosen  by  consistory  and  ap- 
proved by  the  people),  b.  Colloquy,  c.  Provincial 
synods,  d.  General  or  national  assembly;  the  last 
organized  1559,  drew  up  Confession  of  Faith  (CC. 
Vol.  Ill,  356-82)  and  Book  of  Discipline.  Probably 
300,000  at  this  time.  (2)  From  1559-98.  Protestants  j 
now  become  political  party,  opposed  by  Guise  family  | 
(six  brothers),  but  supported  by  old  nobility — three 
noble  ladies,  Margaret  of  Navarre,  Jeanne  d'Albret, 
Renee,  duchess  of  Ferrara;  three  of  the  Bourbons, 


158  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

Antoine,  husband  of  Jeanne  d'Albret,  Louis,  Prince  of 
Conde,  Henry  of  Navarre,  son  of  Antoine;  three 
brothers  of  the  Chatillon  family,  Cardinal  Chatillon, 
Admiral  Gaspard  de  Coligny  and  Francis  d'Andelot; 
under  Francis  II  (1559-60)  Guises  control  government 
and  persecution  is  severe ;  Conspiracy  of  Amboise  sup- 
pressed 1560.  Charles  IX  (1560-74)  only  ten  years 
old,  his  mother  Catherine  de  Medici  as  regent  rules 
by  playing  off  the  parties  against  each  other.  Perse- 
cution stopped,  effort  at  harmony;  Colloquy  of  Passy 
September,  1561 ;  edict  gives  Protestants  right  to  pub- 
lic worship  outside  the  walled  towns  and  in  private 
houses  in  such  towns;  massacres  at  Vassy  March  1, 
1562,  Toulouse  (3,000  killed)  and  elsewhere  precipi- 
tated first  civil  war  1562-3,  ended  by  Edict  Amboise, 
unfavorable  to  Protestants;  effort  of  the  Protestants 
to  get  possession  of  the  king's  person  precipitated 
second  war  1567,  peace  terms  same  as  before;  third 
war  followed  by  Edict  of  St.  Germaine  August  8,  1570, 
giving  Protestants  freedom  of  conscience,  freedom  of 
worship  wherever  it  had  been  free  before,  in  the  sub- 
urbs of  at  least  two  towns  in  every  government  and 
in  the  palaces  of  the  great  nobles,  while  four  towns — 
La  Rochelle,  Montauban,  Cognac,  La  Charite — given 
them  as  pledges  for  at  least  two  years ;  the  king  gave 
up  the  Spanish  alliance.  Marriage  of  Henry  of  Na- 
varre to  Marguerite,  the  king's  sister,  August  18,  1572 ; 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  August  24,  1572  (70,000 
killed),  followed  by  fourth  war,  concluded  by  peace  of 
Rochelle,  July,  1573,  less  favorable  to  Protestants. 
Charles  IX  succeeded  1574  by  Henry  III  (1574-89). 
Fifth  war  followed  by  Edict  of  Beaulieu  May  6,  1576, 
most  unfavorable  to  Protestants  so  far.  The  favor- 


of  Church  History.  159 

able  terms  of  this  peace  and  the  fact  that  Henry  of 
Navarre,  a  Protestant,  was  recognized  as  next  heir  to 
the  throne,  led  the  Duke  of  Guise  to  form  a  league 
for  defense  of  Catholic  faith.  Sixth  war  ended  by 
peace  of  Bergerac  September  15,  1578,  less  favorable 
to  Protestants ;  a  seventh  war  ended  1580.  The  eighth 
war — "War  of  the  three  Henrys" — began  1585.  Grad- 
ually the  League  became  more  hostile  to  the  king; 
king  had  two  of  the  Guises  assassinated,  had  to  flee  to  ( 
Henry  of  Navarre  for  protection  and  was  himself 
assassinated  August  1,  1589.  Most  of  the  Catholics 
refused  to  accept  Henry  of  Navarre  as  king  and  set 
up  Cardinal  Bourbon  as  Charles  X;  d.  1590.  Henry, 
opposed  by  Catholics  supported  by  Philip  II  of  Spain, 
became  Catholic  1593,  and  was  soon  accepted  by  all 
France  as  Henry  IV.  Granted  Protestants  Edict  of 
Nantes  April,  1598,  giving  complete  liberty  of  con- 
science, full  civil  rights  and  protection,  freedom  of 
worship  with  considerable  geographical  restrictions, 
places  of  safety  for  eight  years. 

Henry  IV  assassinated  1610;  Louis  XIII,  a  child 
of  nine ;  Richelieu  real  ruler  1624-42 ;  oppression  of  I  \/r 
Protestants;  La  Rochelle  captured  1628  and  Protest-  * 
ants  cease  to  be  a  political  party,  a  "state  within  a 
state;"  Edict  of  Nismes   (1629)  withdrew  all  special 
privileges  but  confirmed  their  religious  rights;  perse- 
cution under  Louis  XIV  till  revocation  of  edicts  of 
Nantes  and  Nismes  1685 ;  Protestantism  in  every  form 
illegal;  thousands  forced  back  into  Catholic  Church,   ; 
50,000  or  more  families  leave  France. 

IV.     THE  NETHERLANDS. 

References:    N.  ii.  244-6;   K.   Sec.   139:12;  H.  ii.  331-6; 
A.  iii.  284-91 ;  Robertson,  Chas.  V. ;  Prescott,  History  of  Philip 


160  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

II,  3  vols. ;  Motley,  Rise  of  Dutch  Republic,  3  vols.;  History 
of  the  United  Netherlands,  4  vols.;  Life  and  Death  of  John 
of  Barneveld,  2  vols. 

1.  CONDITIONS.     The  Netherlands,  covering  approx- 
imately the  territory  now  composing  Belgium  and  Hol- 
land, consisted  of  seventeen  provinces,  differing  in  laws, 
customs  and  characteristics ;  the  people  were  wealthy, 
hardy,  thrifty,  intelligent,  possessing  important  privi- 
leges  and   loving   freedom.       They   were   under   the 
suzerainty  of  the  empire,  the  direct  government  having 
gradually  fallen  into  the  hands  of  one  family  during 
the  latter  half  of  the  15th  century,  passed  by  inherit- 
ance to  Charles  V.     In  1548  he  was  able  to  detach 
them  from  the  empire,  and  in  1555  they  passed  to  his 
son  Philip  thus  becoming  attached  to  the  crown  of 
Spain.     Religiously  they  had  enjoyed  great  freedom, 
having  little  hierarchical  organization,  being  the  home 
of  all  kinds  of  evangelical  dissent  in  the  later  Middle 
Ages. 

2.  COURSE  OF  REFORM.     Lutheran  movement  early 
felt  in  Netherlands;  Charles  ordered  its  suppression 
1521   and  established  the  inquisition;  first  martyr  of 
the  Reformation  at  Brussels  July  1,  1523;  Zwinglian 
elements   early   introduced   along   the    Rhine;    Dutch 
Bible  1525 ;  from  1529  Anabaptists  (Hofmannite  type) 
were  strongest  party  of  reformers,  especially  in  the 
north.     Calvinism    introduced    c.    1553    and    rapidly 
gained  the   lead.     Charles   V  persecuted  continually, 
thousands  perished    (100,000,  Grotius).       Under  re- 
gency of  Maria  some  relief,  many  English  Protestants 
fleeing   thither    1553-8;   Philip   II    (1555-98),    deter- 
mined to  crush  all  dissent,  began  by  creating  fourteen 
new  bishoprics,  also  making  archbishoprics   of   four 


of  Church  History.  161 

old  bishoprics,  and  retaining  in  the  country  the  Span- 
ish soldiers  he  had  promised  to  remove.  Margaret 
of  Parma  regent  1559-67  had  constant  friction  with 
the  people.  ("Compromise  of  Breda,"  union  of  nobles 
for  defense  of  their  rights  1565,  "Beggars").  Storm 
of  Calvinistic  iconoclasm  1566  suppressed  by  Egmont 
and  William  of  Orange.  Infamous  Alva  came  with 
20,000  veterans  as  generalissimo  (1567-73) — "Council 
of  Blood,"  death  of  Egmont  (Goethe)  and  other 
nobles ;  resistance  by  William  of  Orange ;  Alva  ruined 
the  country  by  taxes  and  put  at  least  18,000  to  death. 
Siege  of  Leyden  1574;  war  continued  to  1576  when 
all  the  provinces,  regardless  of  religion,  united  to  drive 
out  the  Spaniards;  Alexander  of  Parma  (1578-92) 
was,  however,  able  to  recover  the  southern  provinces 
(Belgium)  by  promising  the  restoration  of  all  politi- 
cal privileges,  thus  saving  them  for  Spain  and  the 
Catholics.  Seven  northern  provinces  form  Union  of 
Utrecht  1579,  in  1581  declare  their  independence  of 
Spain  and  elect  William  of  Orange  stadtholder  for  life. 
William,  assassinated  1584,  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Maurice  who  continued  the  war  assisted  by  England; 
Spanish  Armada  1588;  war  continued  till  1609  when 
a  twelve-year  truce  was  followed  by  war  until  1648 
when  Holland  was  recognized  as  a  free  republic  by 
Spain  and  the  empire.  Great  prosperity  and  develop- 
ment in  latter  part  of  period.  Universities  estab- 
lished; Leyden  1575,  Groningen  1612,  Utrecht  1636. 
Calvinists  drew  up  Belgic  confession  (CC.  Ill  383- 
436)  in  1561,  adopted  by  synod  of  Antwerp  1566  and 
by  National  Synod  at  Dort  1574,  revised  by  Synod  of 


162  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

Dort  1619;  it  with  Heidelberg  catechism  became  the 
doctrinal  standard  of  the  state  church  of  Holland. 

3.  RISE  OF  ARMINIANISM.  Jas.  Arminius  (1560- 
1609),  professor  of  theology  at  Leyden  (1603),  under- 
taking to  defend  Calvinism  against  attack,  was  himself 
converted  to  the  views  he  opposed  and  began  to  ad- 
vocate revision  of  the  symbols ;  opposed  by  Francis 
Gomarus  (1563-1645),  he  was  supported  by  other 
theologians  and  by  the  statesman  Olden  Barnaveldt 
(1549-1619)  and  the  great  scholar  Hugo  Grotius 
(1583-1645),  They  drew  up  five  articles  called  Re- 
monstrance 1610  (CC.  Ill  545-9),  hence  were  called 
Remonstrants  or  Arminians.  They  opposed  the  cen- 
tralizing tendencies  of  Maurice  in  politics,  favoring 
a  republican  confederacy,  and  were  thus  driven  into 
the  position  of  a  political  party.  The  bitter  contro- 
versy culminated  in  the  great  Synod  of  Dort  (No- 
vember 13,  1618,  to  May  9,  1619),  composed  of  Dutch 
Calvinists  and  representatives  of  other  Reformed 
churches,  called  and  supported  by  States  General. 
Calvinism  completely  triumphant  of  course.  Canons 
of  the  Synod  drawn  in  opposition  to  Arminian  articles 
(CC.  Ill  550-97)  ;  200  Arminian  preachers  deposed 
and  driven  out  of  the  country.  Barnaveldt  beheaded, 
Grotius  imprisoned  but  escaped  (1621).  After  death 
of  Maurice  (1625)  Arminians  were  allowed  to  return 
and  build  churches  and  schools  and  the  era  of  tolera- 
tion began ;  but  they  have  not  flourished  and  the  state 
church  of  Holland  is  still  Calvinistic. 

Before  end  of  period  several  advocates  of  foreign 
missions  (1620  onward)  ;  mission  work  among  natives 
by  chaplains  in  East  Indian  possessions. 


of  Church  History.  163 

V.     SCOTLAND. 

References:  N.  ii.  235-44;  H.  ii.  444-77;  K.  Sec.  139:8-11; 
A.  iii.  228-35;  McCrie,  John  Knox,  1811,  and  Scottish  Church 
History,  2  vols. ;  Cowan,  John  Knox;  Cunningham,  Church 
History  of  Scotland. 

1.  CONDITIONS.      Politically,    Scotland,    free    from 
England  since  1314,  had  a  weak  monarchy  (Jas.  V.)  ; 
parliament  and  a  body  of  rich,  violent  and  powerful 
nobles;  the  enemy  of  England,  the  ally  of  France. 
The  Church,  at  first  pure  and  independent  (Culdees), 
had  been  romanized  by  the  N'ormans  in  the  llth  cen- 
tury, was  now  wealthy  and  corrupt,  under  primacy 
of  the  profligate  Cardinal  Beaton,  archbishop  of  St. 
Andrews. 

2.  REFORM  TO  1560.     James  V.  (1513-42)  married 
to  Mary  of  Guise,  was  dominated  by  the  clergy.     Par- 
liament   forbade     (1525)     introduction    of    Lutheran 
books  and  doctrines.     Patrick  Hamilton  burned  at  St. 
Andrews  1528.     During  next  fourteen  years  Tyndale's 
Bible  was  widely  sold  and  reform  doctrines  otherwise 
propagated  at  the  cost  of  several  martyrs  at  Edin- 
burgh, Perth,  St.  Andrews,  Glasgow  and  elsewhere. 
During  regency  of  Mary  of  Guise   (1542-60)   policy 
of  repression  continued  while  she  educated  her  daugh- 
ter Mary  in  France.     February  28,  1546,  Geo.  Wish- 
art  was  martyred  at  St.  Andrews;  May  29  Cardinal 
Beaton  was  assassinated   in   retaliation;  conspirators 
captured  with  aid  of  the  French  and  sent  to  French 
galleys.      Among    them    John    Knox     (1505-72),    a 
teacher,  with  university  education,  converted  c.  1542 
by   Wishart    whom   he    accompanied    and    defended; 
preached  first  in  castle  of  St.  Andrews,  then  spent 


164  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

nearly  two  years  on  a  galley;  1549-54  was  pastor  in 
England;  then  lived  at  Geneva,  Frankfort  on  the 
Main,  Geneva  again ;  spent  nearly  a  year  in  Scotland 
1555-6,  then  at  Geneva  till  1559,  writing,  assisting  with 
Geneva  version  of  Scriptures  and  acting  as  pastor  of 
the  English  church.  In  1557  Protestant  nobles  of 
Scotland  formed  "covenant"  to  further  reform.  Knox 
returned  1559.  French  defeated  and  driven  out  of 
Scotland  1560  by  aid  of  English;  the  regent  died  dur- 
ing the  year.  Parliament  commissioned  Knox  and 
others  to  draw  up  a  confession  (CC.  Ill  437-79)  ; 
adopted  by  parliament  August  17,  1560,  but  never  ap- 
proved by  the  queen ;  August  24  the  mass,  jurisdiction 
of  the  pope  and  all  laws  supporting  Roman  Church 
abolished ;  but  reformed  church  was  first  formally 
established  1567.  Book  of  discipline  adopted  by  first 
General  Assembly  of  the  church  December,  1560, 
never  approved  by  parliament,  provided  for  four  of- 
ficers (ministers,  teachers,  elders,  deacons)  all  elected 
by  the  congregation ;  for  local  sessions,  provincial 
synods  and  a  national  assembly.  Church  claimed  in- 
dependence of  the  state  in  formulating  doctrines, 
choosing  ministers,  exercising  discipline,  controlling 
property,  etc.;  provided  for  excellent  educational  sys- 
tem, supported  by  sequestrated  church  property,  most 
of  which,  however,  eventually  fell  to  the  nobles. 

3.  REFORM  TO  1592.  Mary  returned  to  Scotland 
1561.  Struggle  with  Knox  and  the  Reformers  till 
1567  when,  forced  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  her  infant 
son  James  VI,  she  flees  to  England,  where  as  a 
prisoner  she  is  the  center  of  Romanist  plots  for  twenty 
years;  executed  1587.  Government  favors  episcopacy 
and  civil  control  of  the  church;  new  confession  or 


of  Church  History.  165 

"National  Covenant"  1581  (CC.  Ill  480-5)  ;  in  1592 
government  recognized  church's  claims  and  established 
Presbyterian  church  government. 

4.  REFORM  TO  1690.  By  death  of  Elizabeth  1603 
James  VI  became  also  king  of  England  as  James  I. 
Desire  to  harmonize  the  two  countries  led  him  grad- 
ually to  impose  episcopacy  upon  Scotland.  In  1612 
Scottish  parliament  re-established  episcopal  govern- 
ment and  1618  Five  Articles  of  Perth  established  epis- 
copal practices  and  worship.  Charles  I  even  more 
strenuous;  1633  re-establishing  tithes,  in  1636  estab- 
lishing complete  episcopal  system  by  "Book  of 
Canons;"  July  23,  1637,  riot  at  Edinburgh  over  in- 
troduction of  English  prayer  book  (Jenny  Geddes). 
Signing  of  the  Covenant  March  1,  1638,  and  out- 
break of  war  1639.  Financial  needs  of  king  forces 
convening  of  English  Parliament  (1640),  which  unite 
with  Scotch  in  "Solemn  League  and  Covenant"  (1643) 
to  preserve  Presbyterian  church  in  Scotland  and  es- 
tablish it  in  England.  Westminster  Assembly  1643-9. 
Execution  of  Charles  I  1649;  the  Scotch  crown 
Charles  II  at  Scone  January  1,  1651,  after  he  had 
accepted  the  Covenant ;  driven  out  by  Cromwell  who 
holds  Scotland  but  permits  religious  freedom ;  Charles 
II  accepted  as  king  of  England  1660,  forces  episco- 
pacy on  Scotland  1662,  driving  out  350  Presbyterian 
ministers.  Severe  measures  caused  rebellion  of  the 
Scotch  1679.  Claverhouse  (Scott's  Old  Mortality), 
"Cameronians."  Severe  persecution  until  Revolution 
1688  placed  William  of  Orange  on  the  throne.  In 
1690  episcopal  church  was  abolished,  Presbyterian  es- 
tablished and  the  Westminster  standards  adopted. 
Church  was  Presbyterian  in  policy,  Calvinistic  in  doc- 
trine, rigid  and  stern  in  life. 


166  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

VI.     OTHER  LANDS. 
References:   H.  ii.  511-18;  K.  Sec.  154. 

Calvinism  spread  into  other  lands,  affecting  the 
course  of  history — Switzerland — the  Palatinate,  Hesse, 
Brandenburg  and  other  German  states ;  Hungary,  Po- 
land and  Transylvania;  England,  Northern  Ireland 
and  with  the  English  throughout  the  world. 

D.    ENGLISH  REFORMATION. 

References:  N.  ii.  248-91;  H.  ii.  364-443;  605-51;  K. 
Sees.  139:4-6;  155;  A.  iii.  191-228;  Dixon,  History  of  the 
Church  of  England  from  Abolition  of  Roman  Jurisdiction, 
5  vols. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 

1.  It  was  confined  largely  to  England  and  has 
spread  only  with  the  spread  of  English  speaking  peo- 
ple. 2.  It  had  no  great  leader  and  was  the  resultant 
of  various  forces;  hence  lacked  thoroughness  and 
consistency  and  soon  began  to  split  into  denomina- 
tions. 3.  It  was  dominated  by  the  government,  politi- 
cal considerations  largely  controlling  its  course,  leav- 
ing church  subservient  to  the  state.  4.  It  was  the 
least  radical  of  all  types,  preserving  more  of  Medie- 
val Christianity  than  any  other.  5.  The  Catholic  or- 
ganization was  preserved  without  change,  the  king 
becoming  head  in  lieu  of  the  pope.  6.  Its  theology 
(39  articles)  was  moderately  Calvinistic,  on  Lutheran 
basis ;  Arminian  elements  early  appeared.  7.  Worship 
(Book  of  Common  Prayer)  was  a  translation  and 
adaptation  of  parts  of  the  Catholic  liturgy ;  more  Cath- 
olic than  other  forms  of  Protestantism. 


of  Church  History.  167 

I.     COURSE  OF  REFORM. 

1.  POLITICAL,  RELIGIOUS  AND  SOCIAL  CONDITIONS. 
England   a   strongly   centralized  government  with   a 
rough,  cruel  but  able  king,  Henry  VIII.     The  nobility 
had  been  ruined  by  "Wars  of  the  Roses"  while  Henry 
VII  had  greatly  increased  the  power  and  wealth  of 
the  king.     The  church  was  subservient  to  the  state  and 
very  corrupt;  the  leading  officials  were  nominated  by 
the  state;  the  people  were  ignorant,  rude,  degraded 
and  superstitious,  but  rapidly  increasing  their  wealth 
and  improving  their  condition. 

2.  REFORM  TO  DEATH  OF  HENRY  VIII,  1547.     Lol- 
lard doctrines  had  continued  here  and  there.     Work 
of  Erasmus,  Colet  and  More  (Seebohm,  The  Oxford 
Reformers).     John  Tyndale's  translation  of  New  Tes- 
tament 1526.     Demand  for  divorce;  beginning  of  pro- 
ceedings 1526;  difficulties;  fall  of  Woolsey  and   (at 
suggestion  of  Cranmer)  appeal  to  universities  1529; 
Thos.    Cromwell   advises    Henry   to   declare   himself 
head  of  the  church  and  thus   obtain  divorce    1530; 
clergy  declared  guilty  of  the  statute  of  praemunire 
1531 ;  right  of  independent  legislation  taken  from  Con- 
vocation, also  right  to  pay  annates  and  to  appeal  to 
Rome   1532;  divorce  by   Convocation,  and  marriage 
with  Anne  Boleyn  1533;  Act  of  Supremacy  by  parlia- 
ment making  king  head  of  the  church  1534;  opposition 
forcibly  suppressed    (Thos.   More)  ;   "Court  of   Star 
Chamber;"  suppression  of  the  monasteries   (1535-9) 
and  confiscation  of  their  property  to  the  king,  who 
founded  with  it  six  bishoprics  and  fourteen  churches, 
but  lavished  most  of  it  on  his  favorites  and  personal 
ends;  disastrous  to  the  poor;  destruction  of  images 
and  shrines   (a  Becket)  ;  England  under  papal  inter- 


168  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

diet  1538.  All  this  was  political,  but  Protestant  doc- 
trines were  making  progress  also.  Anne  Boleyn, 
Cranmer  and  Cromwell  favored  reform;  translation 
of  the  Bible  allowed  1535f,  "Ten  Articles"  1536;  read- 
ing Bible  encouraged  in  the  churches  1537,  "Institu- 
tion of  a  Christian  Man."  Reaction  in  1539;  "six 
articles"  enforcing  transubstantiation,  communion  in 
bread  only,  celibacy,  chastity,  private  masses,  con- 
fession. Fall  of  Cromwell  1540;  opposition  to  reform 
till  Henry's  death  which  left  the  Catholic  system  in- 
tact. 

3.  UNDER  EDWARD  VI,   1547-53.     The  impulse  to 
reform  under  Henry  VIII  was  Lutheran ;  under  Ed- 
ward  Calvinism  was  more   influential.     Edward,  the 
regents  and  advisers  were  Protestants ;  many  reform- 
ers   from   continent   brought   over   to   assist    (Bucer, 
Peter  Martyr,  Ochino,  John  a  Lasco  and  others;  also 
John   Knox)  ;  all  laws   against   evangelical   doctrines 
were   repealed,   images  removed   from  the  churches, 
priestly  marriage  permitted,  mass  abolished,  commun- 
ion   in    both    kinds    instituted    and    English    liturgy 
adopted.     The  "Book  of  Common  Prayer"  1549  (con- 
taining many  Catholic  elements  eliminated  in  1552), 
was   imposed   on   clergymen   under   heavy   penalties; 
"42  Articles"    1553  were  Calvinistic;  persecution  of 
Catholics ;  the  masses  of  the  people  remained  Catholics. 

4.  UNDER  MARY,  1553-8.     All  laws  favoring  Prot- 
estantism  immediately   repealed;   thousands   of   Prot- 
estants  fled,   some   imprisoned   and   afterwards   mar- 
tyred   (Latimer,   Ridley,   Hooper,   Cranmer  and   oth- 
ers) ;   1554  England  was  absolved  and  formally  re- 
ceived back  into  Catholic  church  by  Reginald  Pole, 
papal  legate;  Mary  married  Philip  II  of  Spain,  who 


of  Church  History.  169 

deserted  her  and  still  further  embittered  her ;  279  per- 
sons martyred. 

5.  UNDER  ELIZABETH,  1558-1603.  Daughter  of 
Anne  Boleyn,  reared  a  Protestant,  during  Mary's  reign 
living  as  Catholic,  was  crowned  by  Catholics  but  speed- 
ily showed  Protestant  sympathy;  thousands  of  exiles 
returned,  bringing  Calvinistic  ideas.  Elizabeth's  dif- 
ficulties and  aims?  In  January,  1559,  the  sovereign 
was  made  "Supreme  Governor"  of  the  church,  thus 
again  cutting  England  loose  from  the  papacy  and  giv- 
ing the  queen  great  authority  in  the  spiritual  and  tem- 
poral affairs  of  the  church;  repeal  of  Mary's  anti- 
Protestant  legislation;  "Act  of  Uniformity"  June, 
1559,  forced  the  prayer  book,  revised,  on  all  clergy- 
men; the  "42  Articles"  were  revised  and  imposed  in 
Latin  1563  as  "the  39  Articles"  (CC.  Ill  486-516)  and 
in  English  1571 ;  all  but  one  bishop  and  many  of  the 
lower  clergy  refused  the  oath  of  supremacy  and  were 
deposed.  Doubtful  validity  of  Parker's  consecration. 
Persecution  of  Catholics,  some  200  Catholics  being 
martyred  during  the  reign;  colleges  for  education  of 
English  Catholic  priests  at  Douay,  Rheims  and  Rome 
1569  on;  Catholic  English  Bible,  Douay  Version;  var- 
ious conspiracies  against  Elizabeth ;  placed  under  the 
ban  by  the  pope  1570;  execution  of  Mary  Stuart  1587, 
attack  by  Spanish  Armada  1588. 

PURITAN  PARTY  due  to  Calvinism  brought  by  re- 
turning exiles  from  the  continent.  They  (a)  opposed 
episcopacy,  favoring  presbyterial  government  as  di- 
vinely ordained;  (b)  favored  simplicity  of  worship, 
opposing  vestments,  candles,  organs,  litany,  etc.;  (c) 
urged  strict  discipline;  they  did  not  all  separate  from 
the  church  but  sometimes  refused  to  conform  (non- 


170  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

conformists)  ;  able,  aggressive,  influential.  Thos. 
Cartwright.  From  this  party  rose  most  of  the  separat- 
ists (Congregationalists  1578  on,  Baptists  1611  on, 
Quakers  1646  on.  See  below).  At  first  Anglicans 
supported  episcopacy  as  a  human  institution  (de  jure 
humano,  Hooker's  Ecclesiastical  Polity)  ;  later  held  it 
to  be  divinely  ordained  (de  jure  divino,  Bancroft). 
Elizabeth  succeeded  in  reducing  Catholicism,  but  Pur- 
itanism was  growing  stronger  at  her  death.  Lambeth 
articles  1595  (CC.  Ill  523-5). 

6.  UNDER  JAMES  I,  1603-25.     The  expectation  that 
James,  a  Scotch  Calvinist,  would  favor  the  Puritans 
led  to  the  "Millenary  Petition"  1603,  and  the  "Hamp- 
ton Court  conference,"  January,  1604,  where  Puritans 
were  rebuffed,  the  king  favoring  episcopacy ;  aided  by 
the  "Court  of  High  Commission,"  he  sought  to  sup- 
press them ;  deposed  and  imprisoned  many ;  repression 
of  Catholics  and  Gunpowder  Plot  1605 ;  King  James 
version  of  Bible  1611;  "Book  of  Sports"  1618;  less 
rigor  towards  Puritans  because  of  Archbishop  Abbott, 
and  towards  Catholics  for  political  reasons,  later  in 
his  reign.     Flight  of  many  separatists  to  the  conti- 
nent 1605  onwards. 

7.  UNDER  CHARLES  I,  1625-49.     Charles  married  a 
Catholic  and  was  favorable  to  Catholic  doctrines;  be- 
lieved in  divine  right  and  absolute  authority  of  kings ; 
ruled  without  parliament  1629-40.    Wm.  Laud  (1573- 
1645),  typical  high  churchman,  bishop  of  St.  Davids 
1621,  Bath  and  Wells  1626,  London  1628,  Archbishop 
of    Canterbury    1633;    Privy    Councilor    1627,    Lord 
Chancellor  1628,  was  under  Charles  all  powerful;  la- 
bored to  enforce  rigid  high  church  principles  on  both 
England    and    Scotland;    emigration    of   Puritans   to 


of  Church  History.  171 

America;  bitter  persecution  through  "Star  Chamber" 
and  "Court  of  High  Commission;"  resistance  by  the 
people  in  the  interest  of  both  religious  and  civil  free- 
dom; "ship  money"  and  John  Hampden;  Scotch  re- 
bellion and  National  Covenant  1638;  to  obtain  money 
to  suppress  it  Charles  calls  parliament  1640.  Proving 
intractable  it  was  dismissed  and  another  called  1640 
(Long  Parliament  1640-53)  ;  soon  at  war  with  the 
king;  Stratford  and  Laud  convicted  of  treason  and 
executed  1641  and  1645 ;  in  order  to  alliance  with  the 
Scotch,  Parliament  accepted  the  "Solemn  League  and 
Covenant"  1643  which  involved  the  preservation  of 
Presbyterianism  in  Scotland  and  its  adoption  in  Eng- 
land; Parliament  called  "Westminster  Assembly" 
(July  1,  1643;  sat  to  February  22,  1649),  inviting 
moderate  Anglicans,  Puritans,  Independents  and 
Scotch  divines ;  Presbyterians  predominated ;  produced 
a  Longer  and  a  Shorter  Catechism  (CC.  Ill  676-703) 
and  the  Westminster  Confession  (CC.  Ill  597-673)  ; 
these  were  adopted  as  their  symbols  by  the  Scotch 
General  Assembly  August  27,  1647,  and  by  the  Scotch 
Parliament  February  7,  1649;  by  the  English  Parlia- 
ment June,  1648,  but  they  were  never  widely  enforced 
on  England.  Defeated  at  Marston  Moor  and  Naseby 
1645  (Oliver  Cromwell)  Charles  fled  to  the  Scots,  was 
delivered  to  Parliament  1647;  Cromwell  expels  the 
Presbyterian  members,  leaving  the  "Rump  Parlia- 
ment" and  defeats  the  Scots  who  invade  England  on 
behalf  of  the  king  (1648)  ;  executes  the  king  (1649). 
8.  THE  COMMONWEALTH,  1649-59.  England  be- 
comes a  republic  while  Scotland  recognizes  and  crowns 
Charles  II  (1651)  ;  Cromwell  puts  down  rebellion  in 
Ireland  and  Scotland,  expelling  Charles  II  and  in  1653 


172  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

dissolves  Parliament  becoming  Lord  Protector  and 
ruling  alone;  successful  war  with  the  Netherlands 
and  Spain;  order  at  home,  honor  abroad;  Cromwell 
gave  religious  freedom  to  all  except  Catholics,  allowed 
no  established  church,  sought  to  raise  the  efficiency 
and  character  of  the  preachers  (Board  of  Triers), 
and  supported  all  good  ministers  from  the  state  treas- 
ury; protected  Protestants  abroad. 

9.  UNDER  CHARLES  II  (1660-85)  AND  JAMES  II 
(1685-9).  (References  N.  ii.  624-30;  H.  ii.  652-9; 
K.  Sec.  155).  Charles  was  weak  and  immoral;  had 
promised  toleration  (Savoy  Conference),  but  gave 
way  before  the  pressure  of  the  Anglican  party ;  restor- 
ation of  Episcopacy  in  England  1660,  followed  by  se- 
vere persecution  of  all  dissent ;  Corporation  Act  1661 ; 
Act  of  Uniformity  1662,  ousting  some  2,000  ministers ; 
Conventicle  Act  1664 ;  Five  Mile  Act  1665 ;  in  order  to 
spare  the  Catholics  king  made  "Declaration  of  Indulg- 
ence" 1672 ;  Parliament  answered  with  Test  Act  1673 ; 
efforts  of  the  king  to  help  Catholics  were  vain;  he 
joined  Catholic  church  on  his  death  bed  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  James  II,  a  Catholic ;  efforts  to 
favor  Catholics  (Declaration  of  Freedom  of  Con- 
science 1687);  trial  of  the  seven  bishops  1688;  the 
Protestants  invite  William  of  Orange,  grandson  of 
Charles  I  and  son-in-law  of  James  II,  to  take  the 
throne ;  this  he  did  1689  (William  and  Mary)  ;  Act  of 
Toleration  (1689)  gave  religious  liberty  to  all  except 
Catholics  and  Socinians;  but  dissenters  were  still  ex- 
cluded from  the  exercise  of  political  rights,  were  re- 
quired to  pay  tithes  and  other  church  dues  to  the  An- 
glican clergy,  and  their  preachers  must  sign  the  39 
Articles  with  reservations.  Protestantism  was  now 


of  Church  History.  173 

firmly  and  finally  established  in  England,  though  many 
of  the  clergy,  including  nine  bishops,  refused  to  swear 
allegiance  to  the  new  king  (non- jurors)  and  in  1691 
were  deposed.  They  kept  up  an  independent  exist- 
ence until  1805. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  period  were  several  men  of 
note:  Wm.  Chillingworth,  d.  1644;  Ralph  Cudworth, 
d.  1688;  John  Tillotson,  d.  1694  and  Gilbert  Burnet, 
d.  1715. 

Morals  of  England  were  low  under  Charles  and 
James.  The  stage  and  literature  utterly  debased. 
But  compare  Milton  and  Bunyan. 

II.     RISE  OF  THE  DENOMINATIONS. 

English  Protestantism  soon  began  to  break  up  into 
denominations. 

1.  INDEPENDENTS  ( CONGREGATION ALISTS).  (Refer- 
ences: H.  ii.  675-90.)  Anabaptists  had  existed  in 
Eastern  England  since  about  1530,  and  may  have 
exerted  some  influence  on  this  movement.  It 
came  out  of  the  Puritan  party,  was  Calvinistic 
in  theology  and  Christian  life,  but  believed  in 
separation  from  Church  of  England,  in  religious 
freedom,  converted  church  membership  and  the  in- 
dependence of  local  church  as  a  self-governing 
democratic  body  of  believers.  Their  founder  was 
Robert  Browne  (c.  1550-c.  1630),  hence  long  called 
Brownists.  About  1578  Browne  reached  the  conclu- 
sion ( 1 )  that  the  apostolic  church  was  a  local  inde- 
pendent body;  (2)  its  government  was  democratic; 
(3)  it  was  composed  of  believers  only;  (4)  that  mag- 
istrates have  no  power  in  religious  matters ;  the  church 


174  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

is  independent  of  the  state  as  well  as  of  other  churches. 
He  formed  a  congregation  at  Norwich,  but  fled  to 
Middleburg,  Zeeland,  1581,  where  he  wrote  several 
tracts  sustaining  the  above  positions;  returning  to 
Scotland  1583  he  reunited  with  Anglican  church 
(1586),  dying  in  its  communion.  A  second  congre- 
gation ( Presbyterial  local  government)  founded  in 
London  1586;  John  Greenwood,  Henry  Barrowe,  John 
Penry  executed  and  congregation  scattered  1593 ; 
Francis  Johnson,  converted  1593,  led  several  separat- 
ists to  Amsterdam  where  he  labored  along  with  Henry 
Ainsworth;  a  third  congregation  at  Gainsborough 
under  John  Smyth  1602  and  at  Scrooby  (Wm.  Brew- 
ster,  Wm.  Bradford,  Jtio.  Robinson,  Thos.  Helwys, 
Jno.  Murton)  ;  in  1606  Smyth  and  his  people  fled  to 
Amsterdam  and  soon  afterwards  Robinson  and  the 
Scrooby  flock  to  Leyden.  Some  of  the  latter  emi- 
grated to  New  England  1620  (Pilgrim  Fathers,  May- 
flower). In  1616  Henry  Jacob  returned  from  Middle- 
burg,  Zeeland,  to  revive  Congregational  work  in  Lon- 
don. His  church  became  the  mother  of  Congregation- 
alism in  England.  Other  churches  arose,  but  growth 
was  slow  until  the  Civil  War  when  under  Cromwell 
they  controlled  the  government  and  grew  rapidly.  At 
invitation  of  Cromwell  200  delegates  from  120  congre- 
gations gathered  at  the  Savoy  in  London  (September 
29-October  12,  1658)  and  drew  up  the  great  Congre- 
gational creed,  "Savoy  Declaration"  (CC.  Ill  707-29). 
Persecution  after  the  restoration;  they  received  tolera- 
tion in  1689. 

2.  BAPTISTS.  (References:  H.  ii.  691-704;  N.  ii. 
881-91;  Vedder,  Short  History  of  Baptists.)  Eng- 
lish Baptists  sprang  out  of  the  Congregationalists, 


of  Church  History.  175 

though  they  may  have  had  some  connection,  not  now 
traceable,  with  the  Anabaptists  (Mennonites)  settled 
in  England  since  the  second  quarter  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  Two  distinct  types,  differing  in  theology  and 
slightly  in  other  respects:  "General  Baptists,"  who 
rose  among  English  Congregationalists  in  Amsterdam 
and  were  Arminian,  believing  in  a  "general"  atone- 
ment; "Calwnistic"  or  "Particular  Baptists"  (believing 
in  a  "particular"  atonement)  who  rose  later  among 
Congregationalists  in  London.  Both  were  long  called 
Anabaptists  by  their  enemies,  while  they  used  no  dis- 
tinctive name  among  themselves. 

(1)  General  Baptists.     John  Smyth,  who  with  his 
Gainsborough  congregation  had   fled  to   Amsterdam 
1606,  became  convinced  of  the  nullity  of  infant  baptism 
about  1608,  baptized  himself   (probably  by  affusion) 
and  then  such  of  his  congregation  as  agreed  with  him, 
including  Helwys   and   Murton.     They  also  adopted 
Arminian  theology  which  was  agitated  at  this  time  in 
Amsterdam.     Soon  convinced  that  he  had  acted  with- 
out authority  Smyth  sought  baptism  at  the  hands  of 
the   Mennonites,   while   Murton,   Helwys   and   others 
maintained  the  validity  of  their  baptism,  and  in  1611 
drew  up  the  so-called  first  Baptist  creed   (Underbill, 
pp.  3-10) .    Returning  to  England  Murton  and  Helwys 
founded  the  General  Baptist  cause  which  flourished  for 
many  years.     Other  Confessions  were  drawn  up  in 
1660  (Underbill,  109ff)  and  1678  (Underbill,  121ff)  ; 
when  they  adopted  immersion  is  unknown. 

(2)  Particular  Baptists  sprang  out  of  the  First  Con- 
gregational church  of  London    (Jacob's,  see  above) 
when  on  September  12,  1633,  John  Spilsbury  and  a 
few  others  withdrew  and  formed  a  new  church  on  the 


176  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

basis  of  believers'  baptism.  Source  and  form  of  bap- 
tism unknown,  though  it  was  probably  affusion;  1638 
seven  other  persons  left  the  Congregational  church 
and  joined  Spilsbury's  church.  About  1640  they  be- 
came convinced  that  immersion  was  the  only  Scrip- 
tural mode  of  baptism;  a  part  insisting  on  succession 
sent  Richard  Blount  to  Holland  to  procure  baptism  in 
1641  (according  to  the  "Kiffin  Ms.")  ;  others  denying 
the  necessity  of  succession  revived  baptism  by  one 
baptizing  another,  who  in  turn  baptized  all  the  rest. 
This  may  have  been  earlier  than  1641.  By  1644  there 
were  seven  churches  in  and  about  London  who  drew 
up  the  first  Calvinistic  Baptist  creed  (Underbill, 
llff)  ;  under  Cromwell  they  were  numerous  and  in- 
fluential in  the  army  and  government.  Persecuted 
under  Charles  II  and  James  II  (John  Bunyan)  ;  they 
received  freedom  in  1689,  and  in  that  year  100  congre- 
gations in  England  and  Wales  united  in  the  best  known 
Baptist  confession  (Underbill,  169ff).  The  less  im- 
portant "Somerset  Confession"  had  been  drawn  up 
1656  (Underbill,  61ff). 

3.  SOCIETY  OF  FRIENDS  or  Quakers  (H.  ii.  705-15) 
sprang  out  of  the  Anglican  church  of  the  Puritan 
wing.  Geo.  Fox  (1624-91),  son  of  a  weaver  in  Lei- 
cestershire, pensive,  serious,  was  led,  after  powerful  re- 
ligious experience,  to  accept  Christ  (1646)  and  began 
preaching  as  layman  (1647)  ;  emphasized  the  "inner 
light"  of  the  Spirit,  rejected  oaths,  war,  civil  office, 
the  ordinances,  creeds,  consecrated  houses,  ordination, 
all  formal  services,  paid  preachers ;  showed  peculiari- 
ties of  dress  and  language;  opposed  capital  punish- 
ment and  slavery,  urged  prison  reform,  etc.;  insisted 
powerfully  on  holy  living ;  he  and  his  followers  showed 


of  Church  History.  177 

wonderful  missionary  zeal,  growing  rapidly  in  Eng- 
land despite  severe  persecution,  and  carrying  the 
"light"  to  the  continent  and  America;  field  preaching 
and  woman  preachers.  Organized  into  (1)  monthly, 
(2)  quarterly  and  (3)  yearly  meetings.  Robt.  Bar- 
clay, the  theologian  of  Quakerism ;  Wm.  Penn.  Quak- 
ers were  never  numerous  (few  outside  Great  Britain 
and  United  States),  but  of  high  character  and  in- 
fluential. 

III.     REFORMATION  OF  IRELAND. 

References:  H.  ii.  478-99;  K.  Sec.  139:7,  Sec.  153:6; 
A.  iii.  235-69. 

The  woes  of  Ireland  began  long  before  the  Reform- 
ation ;  Protestant  England  is  guilty  only  of  perpetuat- 
ing what  Catholic  England  had  long  been  doing.  Ire- 
land rejected  Protestantism  because  it  came  from  Eng- 
land, which  was  the  symbol  of  all  that  was  bad.  In 
general  the  official  reformation  of  Ireland  followed 
that  of  England,  while  the  masses  of  the  people  re- 
mained staunchly  Catholic.  By  act  of  the  Irish  Par- 
liament Henry  VIII  was  made  head  of  the  church 
1535,  monasteries  were  dissolved  and  ecclesiastical 
property  divided  among  English  and  Irish  lords  as 
far  as  English  authority  extended,  i.  e.,  in  the  "Pale." 
Under  Edward  VI  there  was  an  attempt  to  introduce 
the  new  Protestant  English  liturgy,  articles,  etc.,  but 
these  efforts  were  resisted  with  vigor.  Mary  restored 
the  Catholic  church  in  Ireland  as  in  England.  Under 
Elizabeth  Protestantism  was  again  officially  established 
as  in  England  as  far  as  English  authority  extended; 
but  little  was  done  to  convert  the  people.  A  few 


178  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

Bibles  in  English  sold,  an  Irish  catechism  and  primer 
published  1571,  the  Prayer  Book  in  Irish  in  1603,  and 
New  Testament  in  Irish  1608,  but  the  religious  and 
moral  condition  remained  the  same.  Under  James  I 
and  Charles  I  the  Jesuits  were  suppressed,  the  Irish 
lords  ruined,  all  church  property  turned  over  to  Angli- 
can church  and  all  Catholics  were  made  ineligible  to 
civil  office.  This  occasioned  the  massacre  of  thous- 
ands of  Protestants  (Irish  Massacre)  1641 ;  in  1649 
Cromwell  took  terrible  vengeance  and  subdued  the 
entire  island  to  English  rule.  Under  Charles  II  and 
James  II  Irish  Catholics  suffered  as  did  the  English, 
and  the  Act  of  Toleration  1689  left  them  without 
civic  rights,  though  persecution  ceased.  Irish  Articles 
(C.  C.  III.  526-44). 

E.    ANABAPTIST  REFORMATION. 

References:  N.  ii.  148-200;  K.  Sees.  145-48;  H.  ii.  557-62; 
Newman,  History  of  Antipedobaptism ;  Vedder,  Short  History 
of  Baptists;  Vedder,  Balthaser  Hubmaier. 

1.  CHARACTERISTICS.  (1)  Anabaptists  may  have 
had  some  historical  connection  with  earlier  sects,  but 
it  has  not  been  proven,  and  many  considerations  render 
it  doubtful.  All  their  leaders  and  their  members  as 
far  as  they  can  be  followed  came  out  of  Catholic 
church ;  they  had  no  consciousness  of  connection  with 
earlier  sects,  nor  did  they  enter  into  communion  with 
them.  The  more  probable  source  is  the  renewed 
study  of  the  Bible.  (2)  They  held  a  great  variety  of 
views  but  agreed  in  general  on  the  following  points: 
(a)  Churches  are  composed  of  believers  only,  saints. 
This  the  central  normative  doctrine  of  the  system. 


of  Church  History.  179 

(b)  Infant  baptism  is  the  invention  of  man  or  the 
devil,  is  corrupting  and  without  Scriptural  warrant, 
is  null;  only  baptism  of  believers  is  valid;  various 
modes  practised,  (c)  The  church  is  to  be  kept  pure 
by  the  practice  of  rigid  discipline,  (d)  Absolute  sep- 
aration of  church  and  state,  and  consequent  religious 
freedom,  (e)  Rejection  of  oaths,  war,  the  holding 
of  civil  office,  (f)  Property  is  held  by  Christians  as 
stewards  only;  many  of  them  favored  and  practiced 
communism,  (g)  Anti-Augustinian  theology,  (h) 
Itinerant  ministry  under  general  super intendency.  (i) 
They  had  no  leader.  It  was  a  movement  of  the  peo- 
ple, of  the  laity. 

2.  THEIR  HISTORY.  Anabaptist  views  seem  to  have 
sprung  up  independently  and  simultaneously  at  var- 
ious places,  but  they  can  be  divided  into  four  general 
geographical  groups. 

(1)  The  Swiss-Moravian  Anabaptists  rose  among 
the  friends  and  supporters  of  Zwingli  and  spread 
quickly  over  reformed  Switzerland.  Leaders  were 
Conrad  Grebel,  Felix  Manz,  Geo.  Blaurock,  Ludwig 
Hatzer  and  Balthasar  Hubmeier.  Believer's  baptism 
begun  January,  1525,  by  Grebel  (not  immersion) ; 
disputation  between  Zwingli  and  Anabaptists  January 
17,  1525;  repressive  measures;  spread  to  Basel,  Berne, 
Chur,  Schaffhausen,  Appenzell,  St.  Gall;  persecution 
everywhere;  martyrdom  of  Manz  1527;  martyrdoms 
in  Basel,  Berne  and  elsewhere.  Waldshut  reformed 
1524;  Hubmeier  becomes  Anabaptist  1525,  driven  out, 
imprisoned  in  Zurich,  fled  to  Nickolsburg.  Swiss 
Anabaptists  flee  into  Tyrol  and  Moravia.  Continued 
to  be  persecuted  in  Switzerland  but  remain  to  the 
present.  At  Nickolsburg  and  Austerlitz  they  built  up 


180  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

great  communal  houses;  for  a  while  peace,  then  per- 
secution. Some  fled  to  Russia  and  in  1874  to  South 
Dakota.  Closely  associated  with  the  Swiss  were  Hans 
Denck  and  others  from  South  Germany. 

2.  German  Anabaptists  rose  at  Zwickau  near  Wit- 
tenberg, leaders  were  Thos.  Miinzer  and  Nicholas 
Storch,  "Zwickau  prophets,"  emphasized  "inner  light," 
church  of  saints,  etc.  Set  up  independent  church  c. 
1520;  Storch  and  Steubner  visit  Wittenberg  1521,  win 
Carlstadt  and  Cellarius ;  chiliastic  and  socialistic  views 
lead  to  Peasants'  war  in  which  Miinzer  and  his  fol- 
lowers perished;  this  destroyed  the  Anabaptist  move- 
ment in  Germany.  Miinzer  infected  many  other  men; 
Hut,  etc. 

(3)  Dutch  Anabaptists  founded  by  Melchior  Hof- 
mann,  a  radical  reformer  with  chiliastic  notions  1523 
on;  preached  over  all  North  Germany,  along  the 
Rhine;  in  Sweden,  Denmark  and  Netherlands;  be- 
came Anabaptist  at  Strasburg  c.  1529;  regarded 
Christ's  body  as  divine;  owing  to  persecution  he  sus- 
pended baptism;  returned  to  Strasburg  1533  to  await 
coming  of  the  Lord ;  was  thrown  into  prison  where  he 
died  ten  years  later.  Leadership  of  the  Anabaptists 
assumed  by  Jan  Mathys  who  ordered  the  resumption 
of  baptism,  proclaimed  himself  the  promised  Enoch, 
invited  all  the  faithful  to  Miinster,  which  had  recently 
accepted  the  Reformation  (Bernard  Rothmann),  where 
he  set  up  the  "Miinster  kingdom"  1534-5.  Destroyed 
by  the  bishops,  supported  by  the  princes.  Horrible 
history. 

After  this  storm  Menno  Simon  (1536  on)  gath- 
ered the  remnants  of  the  quiet  Anabaptists,  hence 
known  as  "Mennonites." 


of  Church  History.  181 

(4)  Anti-Trinitarian  Anabaptists.  Campanus,  Serv- 
etus  and  the  Italian  Anabaptists  1545  on;  in  Italy 
persecuted  1551,  on  they  flee  to  Switzerland  and  Po- 
land where  they  establish  a  work  at  Racov.  Laelius 
and  Faustus  Socinus.  Their  Christology.  Practiced 
immersion. 

F.     COUNTER  (CATHOLIC)   REFORMATION. 

References:  N.  ii.  350-89;  H.  ii.  529-56;  K.  Sec.  149:1-12, 
151 ;  A.  iii.  339-401. 

For  twenty-five  years  after  the  outbreak  of  the  Re- 
formation the  church  took  no  measures  to  stop  its 
progress,  seemed  dazed.  All  effective  opposition  came 
from  Catholic  princes.  Compromise  and  reunion  ef- 
forts were  frequent.  But  c.  1541  it  began  earnest  ef- 
forts to  meet  Protestantism.  Object  was  (a)  to  re- 
form the  church  in  morals,  (b)  stop  the  progress  of 
Protestantism,  (c)  recover  lost  territory,  (d)  win 
the  heathen.  The  means  were  (a)  Council  of  Trent, 
(b)  revival  of  monasticism,  specifically  the  founding 
of  the  Jesuits,  (c)  reorganization  and  enlargement  of 
the  Inquisition.  This  counter-reformation  continued 
for  more  than  a  century,  recovered  much  lost  ground, 
brought  on  Thirty  Years  War.  It  did  not  in  any  way 
modify  the  policy  or  doctrines  of  the  Catholic  church, 
but  removed  many  abuses,  crystallized  its  doctrines 
and  gave  it  a  great  forward  impulse. 


I.    MEANS  EMPLOYED. 

1.  COUNCIL  OF  TRENT.    A  free  ecumenical  council, 
long  demanded  by  Protestants  and  Catholics  and  fre- 


182  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

quently  promised  by  popes,  had  been  often  postponed — 
Why?  Council  met  in  three  periods,  Dec.  13,  1545- 
March  11,  1547;  May  1,  1551- April  28,  1552;  Jan.  18, 
1562-Dec.  4,  1563.  Small  attendance  till  toward  close; 
almost  exclusively  Latin,  largely  Italian,  bishops ;  con- 
trolled by  papal  legates  and  papal  theologians  (two 
Jesuits).  Protestants  refused  to  attend  though  in- 
vited. Why?  Reforms  and  doctrines  considered  *  in 
alternate  sessions.  It  (a)  ordered  many  reforms  of 
the  clergy,  which  were,  however,  never  fully  enforced, 
and  (b)  formulated  its  doctrines  in  a  creed  (CC.  II 
77-206)  which  is  summed  up  in  the  Profession  of  the 
Tridentine  Faith  (CC.  II  207-10;  I.  98f)  which  must 
be  signed  by  all  Catholic  priests  and  professors.  It  is 
the  most  important  Catholic  creed,  and  was  drawn  to 
meet  Protestantism.  Its  final  interpretation  was  re- 
served to  the  pope. 

2.  SOCIETY  OF  JESUS  (Jesuits).  (1)  The  Founder. 
Every  reform  in  the  Catholic  church  has  been  ac- 
complished by  a  revival  in  monasticism.  The  Refor- 
mation brought  revival  of  old  orders  and  the  formation 
of  new  ones:  Theatines  c.  1524,  Capuchins  c.  1528,  the 
Ursulines  c.  1537  and  many  others,  male  and  female. 
But  the  most  important  of  all  orders  was  the  Jesuits, 
founded  by  Ignatius  Loyola  (1491-1556),  a  Spanish 
soldier  of  noble  blood.  Permanently  disabled  by  a 
wound  1521,  he  turned  to  religion,  became  a  monk, 
studied  in  the  schools  of  Spain  and  University  of  Paris 
where  in  1534  he  founded  a  society  of  young  men  to 
carry  on  mission  work  in  Palestine.  Hindered  by  war, 
they  labored  in  Venice  1537  and  Rome  1539,  where 
they  were  established  as  an  order  September  27,  1540, 
taking  the  ordinary  monastic  vows  and  the  additional 


of  Church  History.  183 

vow  to  go  on  a  mission  wherever  the  pope  might  wish. 
Loyola  wrote  the  "Spiritual  Exercises"  and  the  "Con- 
stitution." 

(2)  Constitution.       Members     divided     into     four 
grades   (classes),   (1)  novices,   (2)  scholars,   (3)  co- 
adjuters    (temporal,  spiritual),    (4)   professed    (three 
vows,  four  vows).       Last  three  classes  are  priests. 
Professed  of  the  four  vows  constitute  the  "Congrega- 
tion" who  alone  conduct  the  business  and  are  eligible 
to  the  offices  of  the  society.     The  officers  are   (1)  a 
General    (the  black  pope)   elected  for  life,  with  six 
assistants,  residing  at  Rome,  receiving  reports  from 
all  officers  and  being  almost  absolute.     (2)    Provin- 
cials, presidents,  professors,  etc.,  appointed  by  the  Gen- 
eral for  three  years. 

(3)  The  Training  is  very  thorough,  lasting  some 
thirty  years  for  the  professed.     Applicants  must  be 
fourteen  years  old,  sound  in  mind  and  body;  they  are 
trained  by  study  and  teaching  in  languages,  the  arts, 
theology,  the  effort  being  to  make  a  scholarly  modern 
gentleman,  absolutely  obedient  to  his  superiors,  cos- 
mopolitan in  his  knowledge  and  capabilities.     They 
wear  no  distinctive  dress. 

(4)  Aims  and  Methods.     Their   motto,   "For   the 
greater  glory  of  God;"  the  recovery  of  lands  lost  to 
Protestantism  and  Mohammedanism,  and  the  conver- 
sion of  the  heathen — world-wide  triumph  of  the  Ro- 
man church.     To  accomplish  this  they  (a)  preached, 
(b)  gave  great  attention  to  higher  education,  founding 
colleges,  and  wherever  possible  becoming  professors 
in  existing  schools,  (c)  used  the  confessional,  (d)  and 
political  intrigue. 

(5)  Ethical   System.      Strict   moralists   themselves 
they  threw  down  all  restraint  for  their  rich  patrons. 


184  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

(a)  Their  doctrine  of  obedience  destroys  man's  moral 
nature,  (b)  End  justifies  the  means,  (c)  Probabil- 
ism.  (d)  Intention,  (e)  Mental  reservation. 

(6)  Their  Subsequent  History.  They  introduced 
themselves  rapidly  into  all  the  countries  of  Europe, 
showed  heroic  devotion  and  fanatical  zeal  for  the 
church,  quickly  made  themselves  felt  among  the  upper 
and  ruling  classes  through  their  schools  and  the  con- 
fessional, won  back  many  Protestants  and  moved 
princes  to  suppress  others ;  started  the  great  reaction. 

Among  the  peoples  of  the  far  East  (Xavier)  and  the 
newly  discovered  Americas  they  unfolded  wonderful 
missionary  activity  which  for  a  time  was  highly  suc- 
cessful, but  eventually  fell  to  pieces  because  of  its 
superficial  character.  Their  theology  has  been  semi- 
Pelagian  ;  they  have  fostered  Mariolatry  and  super- 
stition; have  been  banished  by  various  governments 
and  generally  distrusted;  have  been  the  earnest  advo- 
cates of  the  infallibility  and  irresponsible  power  of  the 
pope,  the  chief  supporters  of  ultramontanism,  reac- 
tion and  superstition. 

3.  THE  INQUISITION  was  reorganized  in  Italy  1541 

-  by  Caraffa  and  speedily  suppressed  Protestants  in  all 

the  states  of  the  peninsula ;  Council  of  Trent  drew  up 

list  of  prohibited  books  1562,  and  the  Congregation  of 

the  Index  founded  1571. 

II.     COURSE  OF  COUNTER  REFORMATION. 

The  Jesuits  soon  entered  most  of  the  countries  of 
Europe,  and  with  wonderful  zeal  and  success  labored 
for  the  conversion  of  Protestants,  at  the  same  time 
moving  princes  to  suppress  Protestantism  by  force 


of  Church  History.  185 

wherever  possible.  They  labored  in  Spain,  Portugal, 
France  where  they  were  largely  responsible  for  the 
wars  and  bitter  persecutions  of  16th  and  17th  cen- 
turies; in  Belgium,  England,  Poland,  Sweden,  Ger- 
many and  Austria.  In  the  last  two  countries  they  won 
their  most  signal  triumphs.  For  while  Catholicism 
was  united  and  enthusiastic,  the  Lutherans  had  be- 
come divided  and  were  engaged  in  bitter  theological 
strife.  By  teaching  and  preaching,  by  moving  the 
Hapsburg  and  Bavarian  princes  to  repressive  meas- 
ures, they  finally  brought  on  the 

THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR. 

References:    N.  ii.  390-411;  H.  ii.  550-6;  A.  iii.  442-60. 

Archduke  Ferdinand  restores  Catholicism  in  Styria 
1596  on;  Donauworth  Catholicised  by  Maximilian  of 
Bavaria  1607;  formation  of  W.  German  princes  into 
Evangelical  Union  (1609)  under  leadership  of  Fred- 
erick, Elector  of  the  Palatinate ;  formation  of  Catholic 
League  under  Maximilian  of  Bavaria  (1609),  com- 
posed of  Hapsburg,  Bavarian  and  ecclesiastical 
princes,  supported  by  pope  and  Spain;  Emperor  Ru- 
dolph II  attempts  to  suppress  Protestants  in  Bohemia 
and  Silesia,  and  is  forced  to  grant  them  religious  lib- 
erty and  a  Parliament  of  Defenders  by  Royal  Charter 
(1609);  dispute  over  succession  to  Julich-Cleves 
further  embittered  Protestants,  already  divided  among 
themselves  between  Calvinism  and  Lutheranism;  1617 
Ferdinand  of  Styria  becomes  king  of  Bohemia  and 
begins  attempt  to  suppress  Protestants.  They  appeal 
to  the  emperor,  and  being  rebuffed,  cast  the  imperial 
ministers  out  of  the  window  and  begin  the  war. 


186  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

1.  FIRST  STAGE  (1618-23),  chiefly  in  Bohemia.    Bo- 
hemian Protestants  were  helped  by  Evangelical  Union ; 
the  Emperor  and  Ferdinand  by  the  Catholic  League; 
1619  Ferdinand  was  elected  Emperor,  Frederick  of 
the  Palatinate  king  of  Bohemia;  Protestants  were  di- 
vided and  defeated  by  Tilly ;  the  electorate  transferred 
from  Frederick  to  Maximilian  of  Bavaria  1623,  while 
Bohemia  was  rapidly  re-Catholicised,  Protestants,  who 
were  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  population,  being  destroyed 
or  won  over  to  Catholicism ;  so  in  Austria  and  Silesia. 

2.  SECOND   STAGE    (1623-30),   chiefly   in   Germany. 
Mansfeld   and   Christian   of   Brunswick  keep   up  the 
struggle  while  England,  France,  Denmark  and  Sweden 
seek  to  form  league  against  Catholics.     During  the 
long  negotiations  Wallenstein,  a  Bohemian  general  of 
the  emperor,  and  Tilly,  general  of  the  Catholic  League, 
overran  all  North  Germany,  reaching  the  Baltic,  Den- 
mark alone  assisting  the  Germans;  1629  the  emperor 
decreed  the  restoration  of  Germany  to  the  condition 
obtaining  1555   (Edict  of  Restitution),  which  would 
have  ruined  Protestantism. 

3.  THIRD  STAGE  (1630-5)  in  Germany.     Protestant 
princes,  now  more  strongly  united,  were  assisted  by 
France    (Richelieu)    and    Sweden    (Gustavus    Adol- 
phus).    Wonderful  success  of  the  latter,  overrunning 
all   Germany  by    1631.     Tilly  destroyed   Magdeburg 
(1631),   was  defeated  at  Leipsic    (1631),   and  slain 
at  Donau worth  (1631).    Gustavus  Adolphus  and  Pap- 
penheim  killed  in  battle  of  Liitzen  November  16,  1632, 
Wallenstein  defeated ;  deposed  and  murdered  1634.  In 
Peace  of  Prague  (1635)  electors  of  Saxony  and  Bran- 
denburg and  some  other  Protestant  princes  make  peace 
with  emperor  in  effort  to  drive  Swedes  out  of  Ger- 
many. 


of  Church  History.  187 

4.  FOURTH  STAGE  (1635-48),  almost  wholly  polit- 
ical. All  Germany  overrun  many  times  by  Swedish, 
French  and  German  troops.  Brought  to  a  close  by 
Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648),  in  which  Sweden  re- 
ceived five  million  thalers  and  land  in  North  Germany ; 
France  received  land  on  left  bank  of  the  Rhine ;  Switz- 
erland and  the  Netherlands  were  recognized  as  inde- 
pendent— both  Protestant;  many  internal  changes  in 
the  empire  practically  destroyed  it;  in  religious  things 
Peace  of  Augsburg  (1555)  was  confirmed  and  now 
extended  to  Calvinists;  as  regards  ecclesiastical  prop- 
erty the  year  1624  was  regarded  as  normal;  i.  e.,  the 
status  quo  of  1624  was  restored,  leaving  vast  quanti- 
ties of  Catholic  property  in  hands  of  Protestants.  Im- 
portant results  of  the  war  were  (1)  almost  total  de- 
struction of  Protestantism  in  Southern  Germany,  Bo- 
hemia, Poland,  Hungary,  etc. ;  (2)  desolation  of  Ger- 
many, setting  back  progress  for  years;  (3)  formal 
recognition  of  Calvinism  as  a  legal  religion  of  the 
empire;  (4)  Catholics  forced  to  recognize  impossibil- 
ity of  coercing  Protestants. 

III.    INTERNAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 
TO  1648. 

References:    H.  ii.  563-71;  A.  iii.  401-41;  K.  Sec.  149-150. 

1.  MISSIONS.  Active  mission  work  among  the 
heathen  by  Jesuits,  Dominicans,  Franciscans  and  other 
orders.  In  India  and  Japan  great  success  by  Xavier 
1542  on;  in  China  by  Ricci;  among  the  Indians  of 
South  America,  Cuba,  Central  America  and  the  south- 
ern and  western  parts  of  North  America,  and  in  the 
Philippines.  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  estab- 


188  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

lished  in  Rome  1622,  and  the  college  of  the  Propa- 
ganda 1627.  Various  attempts  at  union  with  the 
Greek,  Russian,  Nestorian  and  other  churches  of  the 
Orient  failed  or  were  only  partially  successful. 

2.  THEOLOGY.  The  Reformation  produced  an  enor- 
mous theological  literature  in  the  Catholic  church, 
chiefly  by  Jesuits  and  other  monks,  and  dealing  with 
all  phases  of  theology,  but  especially  dogmatic.  Some 
of  the  best  known  were  Petavius  of  Orleans,  d.  1652, 
a  Jesuit;  Robt.  Bellarmine  of  Tuscany  (1542-1621),  a 
Jesuit,  most  noted  theologian  of  his  church;  a  host  of 
writers  in  France,  Spain,  Italy  and  Germany  on  exe- 
getical,  dogmatic,  pastoral,  practical  and  ascetic  the- 
ology. 

The  reformation  also  started  a  controversy  in  Cath- 
olic church  over  original  sin,  free  will,  the  relation  of 
works  to  grace,  etc.  Michael  Bains,  professor  in  Lou- 
vain  after  1551,  attacked  the  scholastic  method,  sup- 
porting his  views  by  texts  from  Scripture  and  from 
Augustine;  seventy-nine  of  his  propositions  con- 
demned by  pope  1567.  His  rapidly  spreading  views 
vehemently  opposed  by  Jesuits,  some  of  whose  views 
were  in  turn  condemned  as  semi-Pelagian. 

Louis  Molina,  a  Spanish  Jesuit,  in  trying  to  har- 
monize (1588)  the  two  views,  set  forth  Pelagianism, 
and  thus  revived  the  struggle  between  Dominicans  and 
Jesuits.  A  commission  appointed  1599  to  determine 
relation  of  grace  to  conversion,  was  never  allowed  to 
report,  and  both  parties  were  enjoined  to  silence  by 
pope  1611 ;  Jesuits  adopted  view  of  congruous  and  in- 
congruous grace  1613.  Cornelius  Jansen  (1585-1638), 
professor  in  Louvain  and  bishop  of  Ypres,  studied 
Augustine  thoroughly,  and  left  behind  him  a  book 
called  Augustinusf  advocating  the  doctrine  of  human 


of  Church  History.  189 

inability  and  irresistible  grace.  This  was  published 
1640,  and  provoked  the  violent  opposition  of  the  Jesu- 
its. Condemned  1642.  Controversy  spread  to  France. 
(See  next  period.) 

3.  ART  AND  Music.  Degeneration  of  church  archi- 
tecture into  Renaissance  and  Rococo  styles;  painting 
flourishes,  but  gradually  decays:  Corregio  (1494- 
1534),  Titian  (1477-1576),  Guido  Reni  (1575-1642) 
and  others  in  Italy;  Velasquez  (1599-1660),  Murillo 
(1617-82)  and  others  in  Spain;  Rembrandt  (1606-69), 
Rubens  (1577-1640),  Van  Dyke  (1599-1641)  and  oth- 
ers in  the  Netherlands. 

G.     GREEK  CHURCH. 
References:    A.  iii.  461-74;  K.  Sec.  152;  H.  ii.  793-804. 

After  capture  of  Constantinople  by  Turks  (1453), 
Christians  suffered  much  persecution,  being  deprived 
of  their  church  buildings  and  heavily  taxed ;  Christian 
population  was  greatly  reduced  in  numbers  by  death 
and  apostasy.  Sultans  assumed  right  to  appoint  and 
depose  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who  was  "Ecu- 
menical Patriarch,"  was  head  of  the  whole  Greek 
church,  though  patriarchs  of  Antioch,  Jerusalem  and 
Alexandria  continued. 

Efforts  at  union  between  Lutherans  and  Greeks 
made  by  Melanchthon  and  (1573-5)  by  two  Tubingen 
theologians,  Andreae  and  Crusius.  Jeremiah  II,  Pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople,  replied  1576,  rejecting  the 
overture  and  criticising  Lutheranism ;  this  answer  was 
approved  by  synod  of  Jerusalem  1672.  In  1589  Jere- 
miah II,  on  a  collecting  tour  in  Russia,  conferred  the 
patriarchal  dignity  on  the  Metropolitan  of  Moscow, 
"third  Rome,"  thus  laying  foundation  for  independ- 


190  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

ence  of  Russian  church.  The  patriarchs  were  conse- 
crated by  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  until  1660, 
when  they  were  recognized  as  independent.  Cyril 
Lucar  (1572-1638),  b.  in  Crete,  traveled,  studied  and 
taught  in  Europe;  became  Patriarch  of  Alexandria 
1602,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  1620;  gradually  ap- 
proaching Calvinistic  doctrine  in  effort  to  reform  East- 
ern church,  was  five  times  deposed  and  (1638)  stran- 
gled by  Sultan  on  charge  of  high  treason.  In  1629-31 
he  wrote  a  confession  which  was  decidedly  Calvinistic 
and  influential  in  Europe,  but  rejected  and  anathema- 
tized by  Eastern  Church  in  Synods  of  Constantinople 
1638,  Jassy  1643,  Jerusalem  1672.  In  opposition  the 
"Orthodox  Confession  of  the  Catholic  and  Apostolic 
Eastern  Church"  (CC.  ii.  275-400)  was  drawn  up 
(1640)  by  Peter  Mogilas,  Metropolitan  of  Kiev,  and 
adopted  by  a  Russian  synod  for  that  country,  by  the 
Synod  of  Jassy  1643,  and  signed  by  the  four  Eastern 
patriarchs,  thus  making  it  the  confession  of  the  whole 
Eastern  Church.  Calvinism  continued  and  was  again 
condemned  in  the  important  Synod  of  Jerusalem 
(1672),  when  the  confession  of  Dositheus  was  adopted 
(CC.  ii.  401-44).  By  these  the  doctrinal  system  of  the 
Eastern  Church  was  crystalized,  as  was  that  of  the 
Western  at  Trent. 

SECOND  DIVISION,  1648  TO  1789. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 
References:    N.  ii.  415-24;  H.  ii.  740-3. 

1.  RATIONALISM.  It  was  an  age  of  dead  hyper- 
orthodoxy  on  one  side  and  skepticism,  liberalism  and 
rationalism  on  the  other.  Wearied  with  strife  and  the- 


I       V*  Is*  » 

V 

N^w^ 


*  •   K> 


of  Church  History.  191 

ological  controversy,  men  turned  to  natural  religion  or 
away  from  religion  altogether,  regarding  Christian 
doctrine  as  the  cause  of  all  their  woes.  For  the  future 
they  would  give  up  their  superstitions  and  live  by 
reason.  Reason  must  rule  in  religion,  law,  architecture, 
art,  poetry.  It  was  the  age  of  Aufkl'drung,  "illumina- 
tion," when  the  accumulated  errors  and  wrongs  of  cen- 
turies were  to  be  swept  away.  All  that  could  not  jus- 
tify itself  to  reason  must  be  rejected.  The  period  of 
unbelief  began  first  in  England  in  seventeenth  century, 
spread  to  France,  and  finally  to  Germany  toward  end 
of  period.  A  new  hopefulness,  joy  and  self-confidence 
filled  the  hearts  of  men. 

2.  POLITICALLY,  it  was  an  age  of  great  progress. 
Two  Protestant  states  arose — Prussia  became  a  king- 
dom in  1701,  and  the  United  States,  a  republic  1776; 
North  America  was    (1764)    wrested   from  Catholic 
France  by  Protestant  England,  and  then  partially  lost 
1776.    Progress  was  made  towards  equality  before  the 
law,  and  sentiment  against  serfdom  and  slavery  was 
growing  in  Europe  and  America.    Progress  was  made 
toward  religious  freedom  in  Europe,  notably  in  Eng- 
land, and  the  United  States  was  founded  on  a  consti- 
tution which  prohibited  any  establishment  of  religion. 
Persecution  of  witches,  heretics  and  unbelievers  ceased 
in  most  Christian  countries. 

3.  PHILOSOPHY  breaks  from  the  leading  strings  of 
religion    and    starts   on   its   career   of   independence. 
Most   of   the   great   systems    of   modern    philosophy 
founded  in  this  period.     Francis  Bacon  (1561-1626), 
Thos.    Hobbs    (1588-1679),    Descartes    (1596-1650), 
Spinosa  (1632-77),  John  Locke  (1632-1704),  Berke- 
ley    (1684-1753),    Leibnitz     (1646-1716),    Christian 


192  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

Wolff  (1679-1754),  David  Hume  (1711-76),  Eman- 
uel  Kant  (1724-1804).  This  was  pre-eminently  a 
philosophical  age,  Deism,  Pantheism  and  materialism 
strongly  represented.  Modern  sciences  were  just  be- 
ginning their  career  in  this  period. 

4.  LITERATURE  also  breaks  away  from  the  church 
and  manifests  the  general  tendencies  of  the  time. 
There  is  an  enormous  output  of  theological  literature, 
mostly  polemical  and  apologetical ;  the  scientific  treat- 
ment of  church  history  and  exegesis  begins  toward 
end  of  period. 

Much  literature  indifferent  or  hostile  to  Christianity, 
especially  in  England,  France  and  Germany.  It  did 
good  service  in  lashing  the  inequalities,  ignorance,  su- 
perstition, absurdities  and  iniquities  of  the  time.  In 
France  there  were,  beside  many  others,  Voltaire 
(1694-1778),  Montesquieu  (1689-1755),  Rousseau 
1712);  Diderot  (1713-84),  and  d'Alembert  (1717- 
83)  founded  and  published  the  Encyclopedia  (1751- 
77)  ;  in  England  Dryden  (1631-1700)  and  Pope  (1688- 
1744),  Addison  (1672-1719),  Swift  (1667-1745)  and 
others,  were  artificial  but  not  so  hostile  to  the  church. 
In  Germany  Klopstock  (1724-1803),  Lessing  (1729- 
81),  Wieland  (1733-1813),  Herder  (1744-1803),  the 
earlier  periods  of  Goethe  (1749-1832)  and  Schiller 
(1759-1805). 

Publication  of  newspapers  began  in  first  half  of  sev- 
enteenth century  (first  weekly)  ;  in  second  half  other 
periodicals  devoted  to  criticism,  philosophy  and  other 
learned  subjects.  Before  end  of  period  they  were 
largely  developed  and  a  powerful  factor  in  the  intel- 
lectual life  of  the  time.  Scarcely  any  religious  week- 
lies and  periodicals  in  this  period. 


of  Church  History.  193 

5.  Music,  which  had  been  developing  rapidly  since 
the  Reformation,  reached  a  high  state  in  this  period. 
Handel     (1685-1759),     Bach     (1685-1750),     Haydn 
(1732-1809),  Mozart  (1756-91).      Much  of  the  best  , 
music  was  distinctly  religious. 

6.  Protestant  foreign  missions  expand  in  this  period. 
Rationalism   and   political   changes   caused   decay   of 
Dutch  missions  in  East  Indies,  and  English  missions 
in  America;  Danish-Halle  mission,  founded  1705,  and 
Moravians  begin  work  1732 ;  serious  retrogression  be- 
fore end  of  period. 

7.  Rise  of  a  new  denomination,  Methodism,  in  Eng- 
land, 1739,  is  of  world- wide  significance. 

A.     CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

I.     EXTERNAL  HISTORY. 
References:    N.  ii.  425-42,  488-92;  K.  Sec.  156:1-4. 

1.  RELATIONS  TO  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT  AND  NATIONAL 
CHURCHES.  In  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia,  the  pope 
and  his  protest  were  wholly  ignored  by  both  Catholics 
and  Protestants.  Henceforth  his  influence  on  civil 
government  and  secular  affairs  almost  ceased,  and  his 
moral  influence  was  greatly  weakened.  Catholic 
princes  showed  marked  independence,  and  even  hos- 
tility to  papal  pretensions,  and  were  widely  supported 
by  the  bishops  and  church.  The  period  was  one  of 
almost  constant  and  steady  decline  in  the  influence  and 
standing  of  the  pope.  (1)  In  this  opposition  France 
took  the  lead.  In  1662  papal  envoys  were  ordered  to 
quit  France,  Avignon  and  Venaissin  were  occupied  by 
French  troops.  Italy  was  invaded  and  a  humiliating 


194  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

treaty  forced  from  the  pope  1664;  controversy  over 
"Right  of  Regalia,"  i.  e.,  revenues  of  vacant  bishoprics, 
led  Louis  XIV  to  appeal  from  the  pope  to  a  General 
Council ;  1682  the  assembly  of  French  clergy  drew  up 
(Bossuet)  famous  Gallican  Liberties  in  "Four  Arti- 
cles" :  a.  The  church  has  power  only  in  spiritual,  not 
in  civil  or  temporal  things;  rulers  are  not  subject  to 
the  church  in  temporal  affairs,  nor  can  they  be  de- 
posed or  their  subjects  be  released  from  obedience, 
b.  The  final  seat  of  authority  is  in  the  Ecumenical 
Council,  c.  Papal  authority  is  limited  by  the  canons 
and  by  the  ecclesiastical  customs  and  institutions  of  the 
Gallican  kingdom  and  church,  d.  The  pope's  judg- 
ment is  not  irreversible  until  confirmed  by  a  council. 
The  pope  refused  to  confirm  the  French  bishops,  while 
Louis  XIV  threatened  to  cut  the  French  church  loose 
from  the  papacy.  In  1693  the  bishops  expressed  re- 
gret for  the  articles  of  1682,  but  friction  continued 
throughout  the  period. 

(2)  In  Austria  there  was  frequent  friction  and  Jo- 
seph II,  co-regent  with  Maria  Theresa  (1766-80),  Em- 
peror (1780-90)  introduced  sweeping  reforms — grant- 
ed  toleration   to   Protestants,   prohibited   pilgrimages 
and   processions,    suppressed    many   monasteries    and 
placed  others  under  strict  regulation,  permitted  publi- 
cation of  papal  bulls  and  episcopal  ordinances  only 
after  governmental  approval,  placed  monastic  houses 
under  bishops,  etc.    The  "Congress  of  Ems,"  a  gather- 
ing of  German  clergy,  took  steps  looking  toward  sev- 
ering the  German  church  from  Rome.    So  serious  was 
the  outlook  that  Pius  VI  journeyed  to  Vienna  in  the 
hope  of  averting  the  disaster. 

(3)  Other  Catholic  States — Venice,  Naples,  Spain, 
Portugal — showed  marked  spirit  of  independence,  and 


of  Church  History.  195 

frequent  frictions  throughout  the  period.  In  the  Span- 
ish Netherlands  an  independent  church,  "Old  Roman 
Catholic  Church  of  the  Netherlands,"  was  formed 
(1723),  which  now  has  6,000  members. 

2.  MISSIONS.  (1)  In  Europe.  Conversion  of 
Count- Palatine  Wolfgang  William  of  Neuburg  in  1614 
prepared  way  for  Catholicising  of  the  Palatinate 
1685 ;  Christiana,  daughter  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  be- 
came Catholic,  but  resigned  her  crown  1654;  Freder- 
ick Augustus  II,  Elector  of  Saxony,  became  Catholic 
(1697)  to  qualify  himself  for  the  Polish  crown,  but 
safeguarded  the  rights  of  his  Protestant  subjects.  In 
France  persecution  throughout  seventeenth  and  eight- 
eenth centuries  drove  many  Protestants  back  into 
Catholic  church;  all  Lutherans  banished  from  arch- 
bishopric of  Salsburg  1731.  In  England,  Scotland, 
Ireland,  Holland  and  North  Germany  and  Scandina- 
vian countries  Catholics  were,  for  the  most  part,  with- 
out political  or  religious  rights. 

(2)  Foreign  Missions  (A.  iii.  576-84).  Catholic 
foreign  missions  were  almost  destroyed  before  end  of 
period.  In  India  at  beginning  of  period  were  some 
300,000  Christians,  Pariahs  and  Brahmins  (Nobili), 
chiefly  the  result  of  Jesuit  work.  By  end  of  period 
they  have  almost  disappeared.  In  China  Ricci  (d. 
1610)  was  followed  by  Verbiest  (d.  1688),  Schall 
(1728-63),  and  many  other  Jesuits;  they  accommo- 
dated Christianity  to  Chinese  customs  and  made  them- 
selves otherwise  useful  to  the  government.  The  em- 
peror officially  permitted  conversion  to  Christianity, 
and  by  1700  there  were  300,000  Christians ;  from  1630 
on,  Jesuits  were  opposed  by  Dominicans  and  Francis- 
cans; forbidden  by  pope  to  continue  accommodation 


196  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

methods;  after  1723  Christianity  was  forbidden  by 
Chinese  government;  much  persecution.  In  Japan 
there  had  been  almost  a  million  nominal  Christians; 
change  of  political  situation  brought  persecution,  and 
1641  all  foreign  missionaries  were  banished  and  the 
work  almost  perished.  In  most  of  North  America 
Catholic  missions  were  brought  to  an  end  by  the  Eng- 
lish. In  Mexico,  Central  and  South  America  and  the 
Antilles,  Dominicans,  Franciscans  and  other  orders 
carried  on  a  successful  mission.  In  Paraguay  the  Jes- 
uits had  great  success,  a  semi-independent  state,  sup- 
pressed by  Spain  and  Portugal  1750,  and  completely 
ruined;  success  in  the  Philippines. 

II.     INTERNAL  HISTORY. 

References:  N.  ii.  467-79;  K.  Sees.  157,  165 :7f;  A.  iii. 
500-17. 

1.  JANSENISM  AND  QUIETISM.  Jansen's  Augustin- 
ianism  was  supported  by  St.  Cyran  (d.  1643)  and 
Antoine  Arnauld,  by  Port  Royal  Convent  under  Ange- 
lique  (Arnauld),  and  many  able  and  famous  men  con- 
nected with  the  convent — Le  Maitre,  DeSaci,  Blaise 
Pascal,  Nicole,  Tillemont,  Quesnel,  Racine.  Condem- 
nation of  "Five  Propositions,"  alleged  to  be  taken  from 
"Augustinus,"  by  the  pope  (1653)  :  expulsion  of  Ar- 
nauld and  eighty  other  doctors  from  Sorbonne  (1656)  ; 
"Provincial  Letters"  1656;  French  clergy  required  by 
pope  and  king  to  sign  "Declaration"  condemning  the 
propositions,  1661 ;  persecution ;  Port  Royal  broken  up 
1709  and  building  destroyed  1710.  Quesnel  had  pub- 
lished "Moral  Reflections"  on  New  Testament  1671-87, 
and  new  edition  1693;  widely  read;  101  propositions 


of  Church  History.  197 

condemned  in  bull  Unigenitus  1713 ;  archbishop  of 
Paris,  other  bishops  and  doctors  refused  to  accept  the 
bull  and  appealed  to  General  Council  1717;  they  were 
called  "Appellants,"  their  opponents  "Acceptants ;" 
1727  a  deacon,  Francis  of  Paris,  died  with  the  appeal 
in  his  hand ;  his  grave  in  St.  Medard  worked  miracles ; 
wild  fanaticism  and  gradual  death  of  Jansenism  in 
France;  bishops  returned  to  obedience  or  were  ban- 
ished, 1728  on. 

In  1723  archdiocese  of  Utrecht  in  the  Netherlands 
seceded  from  the  papacy  and  set  up  an  independent 
Jansenist  church,  "Old  Catholic  Church  of  the  Neth- 
erlands." 

Parallel  with  the  above  was  the  controversy  over 
"Quietism,"  Spanish  mysticism.  Michael  Molinos 
(1627-96),  a  Spaniard,  went  to  Rome  1669  and  soon 
afterward  wrote  the  "Spiritual  Guide;"  author  forced 
to  retract  1687;  died  in  prison  1696;  many  followers. 
Madame  Guyon  (1648-1717),  gifted  French  lady, 
adopted  these  views ;  condemned  1695,  she  submitted, 
but  continued  to  propagate  her  views ;  roused  contro- 
versy between  Bossuet  and  Fenelon ;  submission  of  the 
latter  1697  on. 

2.  SUPPRESSION  OF  JESUITS  (A.  iii.  562-72;  K. 
Sec.  165-9).  Jesuits  had  rendered  themselves  ex- 
tremely unpopular  by  (1)  lax  moral  principles,  (2) 
meddling  in  politics,  (3)  their  vast  power  in  church 
and  state,  (4)  semi-Pelagian  theology,  (5)  extensive 
commercial  enterprises,  (6)  lax  missionary  methods, 
(7)  disobedience  to  pope.  (8)  "Provincial  Letters"  of 
Pascal  brought  them  into  contempt,  were  unpopular 
with  laity,  church,  government.  They  were  banished 
from  Portugal  and  its  dominions  (E.  and  W.),  and 


198  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

their  property  confiscated  1759;  suppressed  in  France 
1762;  banished  from  Spain  and  her  possessions,  Na- 
ples, Parma  and  Piacenza  1767 ;  on  urgent  demand  of 
the  Bourbon  princes,  suppressed  by  pope  July  21,  1773. 
They  lingered  for  a  time  in  Silesia,  and  in  Russia  till 
their  revival. 

3.  RELIGIOUS  THOUGHT  AND  LITERATURE  (A.  iii. 
517-62).  Catholics  produced  little  non-ecclesiastical 
literature,  were  little  affected  by  the  prevailing  ration- 
alism. Several  scholars  of  note  are  found  in  Catholic 
countries.  In  France,  Bossuet  (+1704)  and  Fenelon 
(-1-1715)  were  scholars  and  preachers;  Flechier 
(+1710),  Bourdalou  (+1704),  Massillon  (+1742) 
great  preachers;  members  of  various  orders  did  ad- 
mirable work  in  Church  History;  e.  g.,  Tillemont, 
Harduin,  Labbe,  Cossart  and  others.  Toward  end  of 
period  religious  literature  declined  under  influence  of 
skepticism.  In  Italy  were  Muratori  and  Mansi ;  men 
of  less  note  in  other  lands. 

B.     LUTHERAN  CHURCHES. 

References:  N.  ii.  519-44;  K.  Sees.  154,  159-60,  167-68;  H. 
ii.  573-87;  A.  iii.  585-621. 

1.  LUTHERAN  REFORMATION.  The  Reformation  left 
the  churches  completely  subservient  to  princes  whose 
influence  was  often  evil.  The  strife  and  ruin,  econom- 
ic depression  and  moral  degeneration  of  the  Thirty 
Years  War  were  accompanied  and  followed  by  bitter 
theological  battles.  A  new  scholasticism  and  rigid, 
intolerant,  polemical  Lutheran  orthodoxy  characterized 
last  half  of  seventeenth  century  in  Germany  and  Scan- 
dinavia. Formula  of  Concord  the  standard.  Empha- 


of  Church  History.  199 

sis  on  the  objective,  external  features  of  Christianity — 
baptism,  the  word,  confession,  Eucharist,  church,  min- 
istry; neglect  of  the  spiritual,  and  of  personal  faith; 
immorality;  formal  theological  preaching.  Efforts  of 
Geo.  Calixtus  (1586-1656),  highly  educated  and  wide- 
ly traveled,  professor  in  University  of  Helmsted 
(1613-56),  on  basis  of  the  Bible  and  the  consensus  of 
teaching  in  first  five  Christian  centuries,  to  bring  about 
more  harmony  and  better  feeling  (conference  at  Thorn 
1645)  precipitated  violent  Syncretistic  controversy. 
University  of  Wittenberg  and  Leipzig  orthodox. 

2.  Reaction  against  dead  orthodoxy  produced  Piet- 
ism, the  German  revival.  Beginnings  of  other  men 
gathered  up,  crystalized  and  made  effective  by  P.  J. 
Spener  (1635-1705),  b.  in  Alsace,  highly  educated, 
widely  traveled,  able,  spiritual ;  pastor  and  professor  in 
Strasburg  (1663-6);  pastor  at  Frankfort  (1666-86); 
chief  court  preacher  at  Dresden  (1686-91);  provost 
of  St.  Nicolai  church,  Berlin  (1691-1705)  ;  began  re- 
form work  c.  1666,  with  earnest,  practical,  spiritual 
preaching;  collegia  pietatis  for  devotional  and  Bible 
reading  1670  onward ;  Pia  Desederia  published  1675 ; 
he  emphasized  necessity  for  regeneration  and  conver- 
sion, private  Bible  study,  activity  of  laymen,  personal 
piety,  church  discipline;  bitter  opposition  of  orthodox 
Lutherans. 

In  1686  A.  H.  Francke,  Paul  Anton  and  six  other 
young  professors  in  University  of  Leipzig  under  Spen- 
er's  influence  formed  a  club  (Collegium  Philobibli- 
cum)  for  exegetical  and  devotional  Bible  study;  1690 
collegia  biblica,  exegetical  lectures  on  Bible  for  stu- 
dents; opposition  (Carpzovius)  drove  Francke  and 
others  out  of  the  University;  University  of  Halle 


200  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

founded  1694  with  Thomasius  in  jurisprudence, 
Francke,  Anton  and  Breithaup  in  theology,  thoroughly 
pietistic,  immensely  popular;  orphan  house  founded 
(1695)  ;  hundreds  of  pastors  and  missionaries  educa- 
ted here.  Pietism  becomes  censorious,  divided,  polemi- 
cal. Strife  with  Christian  Wolf,  (1697-1754)  profes- 
sor of  philosophy,  who  in  popularizing  teachings  of 
Leibnitz,  maintained  that  only  those  Christian  doc- 
trines which  can  be  proven  are  to  be  believed,  began 
1721  and  ended  in  his  deposition  and  banishment  1723. 
Pietism  never  formed  an  independent  denomination, 
and  now  gradually  decayed  before  the  rising  ration- 
alism. 

3.  The  AUFKLAERUNG   (Illumination),  German  ra- 
tionalism.    Germany's  revival  began  to  wane  fifteen 
years  before  England's  began  to  rise.    Wolf's  philoso- 
phy, eliminating  the  supernatural,  and  recommending 
natural  religion,  mastered  Germany  by  1740,  was  im- 
mensely popular.    Assisted  by  French  skepticism  (Vol- 
taire) and  extensive  use  of  French  language  and  liter- 
ature.   "Popular  Philosophy,"  Semler  (d.  1768),  Rei- 
marus  (d.  1768)   ( Wolff enbiittel  Fragments  published 
by  Lessing,  1774  onward)  ;  Mosheim  (d.  1755)  ;  Edel- 
mann  (d.  1767). 

4.  MISSIONS,  chiefly  to  heathen  in  colonies  of  Chris- 
tian nations.     Various  voices  raised  in  favor  of  mis- 
sions in  seventeenth  century,  bitterly  opposed  by  ortho- 
dox Lutherans.     Baron  Justinian  Von  Weltz   (1621- 
c.  1670)  wrote  in  favor  of  missions  1664  onward,  went 
to  Dutch  Guiana  and  soon  died,  martyr.    Spener,  Leib- 
nitz, Francke  and  others  favored.    Denmark  had  colo- 
nial possessions  in  East  Indies  1619  onward,  and  in 
West  Indies  1672  onward.    King  Frederick  IV  deeply 


of  Church  History.  201 

interested  in  missions,  commissioned  court  preacher 
Liitkens  (1705)  to  find  and  send  out  missionaries. 
No  Danes  being  found,  two  Germans  from  Halle  were 
sent  out  (1705)  to  Tranquebar  (Danish-Halle  Mis- 
sion) ;  supported  by  State  of  Denmark,  but  manned 
and  directed  from  Halle,  whence  sixty  missionaries 
were  sent  out  during  the  century.  First  missionary 
magazine  began  1710  (Missionsnachrichten  der  ostin- 
dischen  Missionsanstalt  2U  Halle)  by  Francke.  Mis- 
sion flourished  till  Rationalism  destroyed  its  support 
at  home.  A  missionary  college  at  Copenhagen  sent 
missionaries  to  Lapland  (1716  onward)  and  Green- 
land (1721  onward). 

"United  Brethren"  most  notable  missionaries  of  the 
period.  Count  Zinzendorf  (1700-60)  studied  at  Halle, 
Wittenberg  and  elsewhere,  deeply  and  earnestly  pious ; 
permitted  fugitive  Moravians  to  settle  on  his  estates 
(1722)  ;  Germans  and  other  pious  people  joined  them 
and  they  became  "United  Brethren"  (Unitas  Fra- 
trum)  ;  named  Herrnhut  1727;  had  old  Bohemian  or- 
ganization with  bishops,  but  accepted  Augsburg  Con- 
fession; not  intended  as  new  denomination,  but  an 
evangelizing  agency ;  1728  it  was  decided  to  undertake 
foreign  mission  work;  on  a  visit  to  Copenhagen,  1731, 
Zinzendorf  learned  of  conditions  of  Negroes  in  West 
Indies  and  conditions  in  Greenland ;  missionaries  to 
West  Indies  1732,  Greenland  1733,  Pennsylvania  1735, 
Georgia  1737  (the  Wesleys),  Labrador  1771.  Mission- 
aries not  university  bred,  but  brave  and  faithful,  doing 
work  in  hardest  fields. 

5.  The  New  Jerusalem  Church  founded  (1783)  by 
disciples  of  Emanuel  Swedenborg  (1688-1772),  pan- 
theistic. 


202  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

C.     CALVINISTIC  OR  "REFORMED" 
CHURCHES. 

References:  N.  ii.  568-70,  573-8,  585-7,  589-99;  K.  Sees. 
161:3,  162,-  169:1-3;  H.  ii.  772f,  776-81;  864-8. 

Calvinism  showed  same  two  tendencies  as  Lutheran- 
ism:  (1)  hyperorthodoxy,  (2)  growing  liberalism; 
both  fostered  strife,  deadness  and  coldness.  There  is 
little  pleasing  history,  only  theological  strife  in  the 
earlier  years,  shading  off  into  liberalism  and  rational- 
ism in  the  later. 

1.  Swiss  "REFORMED"  (N.  ii.  568-73;  K.  Sec.169: 
2).    At  beginning  of  period  the  Swiss  churches  were 
staunchly  Calvinistic.     Johann  Buxtorf,  the  Younger 
(1599-1664).    In  opposition  to  school  of  Saumur  (La 
Place  1596-1655;  Cappel  1585-1658,  who  discovered 
true  history  of  Hebrew  vowel  points,  Amyraut  1596- 
1644),  who  denied  verbal  inspiration,  particular  pre- 
destination and  imputation  of  Adam's  sin,  a  new  creed, 
Helvetic    Consensus    Formula    (CC.    I.    487-9)    was 
adopted  by  the  "Reformed"  cantons  and  made  binding 
on  ministers  and  theological  professors.     Rigid  Cal- 
vinism ;  it  was  gradually  abolished  by  one  canton  after 
another  in  first  half  of  eighteenth  century.     Gradually 
a  more  liberal  spirit  appeared  (J.  A.  Turretin,  1674- 
1737),   and   before   end   of   period    Switzerland   was 
deeply  affected  by  the  rationalism  of  France  and  Ger- 
many. 

2.  GERMAN  "REFORMED"   (N.    ii.    585-7;    K.    Sec. 
169:1)  were  deeply  depressed  by  Thirty  Years  War. 
Prussia,  an  asylum  for  persecuted  Calvinists  of  other 
parts  of  Germany,  and  from  France.    Contrary  to  pro- 
visions of  Treaty  of  Westphalia,  Calvinists  were  per- 


of  Church  History.  203 

secuted  almost  throughout  the  entire  period.  German 
Calvinists  were  deeply  affected  by  the  "Illumination," 
and  practically  lost  their  identity  by  "Evangelical  Un- 
ion" in  Prussia,  1817. 

3.  FRENCH  PROTESTANTS  (N.  ii.  589-99;  H.  ii.  776- 
81;  Baird,  Huguenots  and  Rev.  Edict  of  Nantes). 
Protestants  had  flourished  during  first  half  of  seven- 
teenth century,  counting  possibly  2,000,000,  many 
preachers'  of  ability  (DuMoulin,  Saurin),  four  theo- 
logical schools — Nismes,  noted  for  its  attempts  to  unite 
Catholics  and  Protestants ;  Saumur,  noted  for  its  mod- 
ifications of  current  orthodoxy  and  Calvinism;  Sedan 
and  Montauban,  orthodox;  many  colleges  and  other 
schools.  Gradually  their  church  buildings  had  been 
destroyed,  their  schools  broken  up,  numberless  other 
oppressions  suffered;  emigration  began  c.  1660;  possi- 
bly 500,000  or  more  Protestants  emigrated  in  next  30 
years ;  dragonades  and  inducements  of  money  and  po- 
sition led  thousands  to  become  Catholics.  Revocation 
of  edicts  of  Nantes  and  Nismes  (1685)  destroyed  all 
organization  and  property,  forbade  all  worship,  ban- 
ished all  preachers,  made  Protestant  marriage  invalid. 
Many  remained  faithful,  especially  in  Southern  and 
Southeastern  France,  and,  with  or  without  ministers, 
held  secret  worship.  Camisard  War  in  the  Cevennes 
(1702-5)  ;  fanaticism,  prophecy,  etc.  Antoine  Court 
(1695-1760),  "restorer  of  the  Reformed  Church  of 
France,"  organized  Synod  of  the  Desert  (1715),  and 
began  to  reorganize  whole  church  of  France,  sending 
Corteiz  to  Switzerland  to  secure  ordination.  Progress 
now  steady.  Theological  school  for  French  preachers 
established  at  Lausanne  1730.  Paul  Rabaut  (1718-94), 
wonderful  evangelist.  Last  execution  1762.  Influence 


204  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

of  Voltaire,  Lafayette  and  the  liberals  against  perse- 
cution or  proscription.  Edict  of  Toleration  (1787) 
was  practically  a  re-instatement  of  Edict  of  Nantes. 

4.  DUTCH  "REFORMED"   (N.  ii.  573-8;  H.  ii.  772; 
K.    Sec.    169:3).      The    Netherlands    not    much    af- 
fected by  Thirty  Years  War;  division  between  Cal- 
vinists    and    Remonstrants     (Arminians)     continued; 
rigid  Calvinism  gradually  decayed.    Remonstrants  had 
a  seminary  and  produced  some  men  of  note :   P.  Lim- 
borch  (1633-1712)  wrote  "History  of  the  Inquisition"; 
J.  Clericus  (1657-1736);  other  writers  and  literature. 
The  Orthodox,  torn  by  theological  strife,  produced  an 
immense  theological  literature.     Cocceius    (1603-69), 
father  of  "federal  theology,"  and  founder  of  biblical 
theology ;  relation  between  God  and  man  is  one  of  cov- 
enants; (1)  covenant  of  works  before  the  fall,  (2)  cov- 
enant of  grace  after  fall,  divided  into  three  dispensa- 
tions, ante-legal,  legal,  post-legal.    He  and  his  follow- 
ers were  liberal  in  keeping  Sabbath,  in  dress,  life  and 
amusements.      He   was   opposed   by   Voetius    (1588- 
1676),  a  rigid  Calvinist,  strict  Sabbatarian;  peculiari- 
ties in  dress,  abstaining  from  amusements,  etc.     The 
whole  people,  churches,  schools,  government  divided 
into  warring  factions.     Compromise:   churches  should 
have  pastors  alternately  from  the  two  parties,  univer- 
sities should  divide  their  professors  among  the  parties. 

5.  SCOTLAND  (N.  ii.  603-9;  H.  ii.  864-8).  The  estab- 
lishment of  the  Episcopal  church  in  Scotland  on  resto- 
ration of  Charles  II  (1661)  ousted  four  hundred  min- 
isters, led  to  renewal  of  the  covenant  and  the  forma- 
tion of  a  party  of  Covenanters  (Cameronians,  or  Re- 
formed Presbyterians),  which  continued  as  an  inde- 
pendent party  after  the  Revolution  and  re-establish- 


of  Church  History.  205 

ment  of  Presbyterianism  as  the  state  church  of  Scot- 
land (1689)  on  basis  of  1592;  Episcopalians  a  minor- 
ity, persecuted  party;  Scottish  parliament  united  with 
the  English  1707;  restored  lay  patronage  (what  is  it?) 
1711;  Scottish  General  Assembly,  having  protested 
several  years,  pronounced  in  favor  of  lay  patronage 
1732 ;  protest  against  this  act  and  the  growing  laxness 
in  life  and  theology  due  to  Deism  and  Socinianism 
(Moderateism),  led  the  assembly  to  depose  Ebenezer 
Erskine  (1680-1754)  and  others  (1733),  who  formed 
the  "Secession  Church"  highly  Calvinistic  and  rigid  in 
morals ;  this  church  split  1749,  but  the  parties  reunited 
1820  into  the  "United  Secession  Church."  Thos.  Mc- 
Crie  was  member  of  this  church.  In  1752  .Thos.  Gil- 
lespie,  refusing  to  assist  in  ordaining  a  man  forced  on 
a  church,  was  deposed  by  the  Assembly,  and  formed 
the  "Relief  Church,"  moderately  Calvinistic.  The  state 
church  suffered  decline  in  morals,  evangelical  doc- 
trines and  zeal ;  many  men  of  culture  in  it :  Robertson, 
the  historian ;  Hugh  Blair,  the  rhetorician ;  Thos.  Reid, 
the  philosopher ;  John  Home,  the  dramatist,  and  many 
other  preachers  were  famous  as  literary  men;  Hume 
(d.  1776)  was  friendly  with  preachers.  Criticism  of 
current  Christianity  by  Robt.  Burns  (1759-96)  ;  Mod- 
erateism dominant  in  state  church,  but  condition  not 
so  bad  as  in  England  in  this  period. 

D.     ENGLAND. 

References:  N.  ii.  633-50,  681-9,  704;  H.  ii.  809-27;  844-6, 
851  f;  K.  Sec.  169 :4f. 

During  last  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  and  first 
half  of  eighteenth  century,  England  was  at  low  ebb 
religiously  and  morally,  due  to  reaction  against  (a) 


206  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

preceding  political  and  religious  strife,  (b)  Puritan 
sternness  and  severity,  and  (c)  rise  of  Deism  and  So- 
cinianism  (or  Arianism).  Drunkenness,  profanity, 
theft,  robbing,  gambling  and  the  social  evil  prevailed 
among  all  classes  to  frightful  extent ;  severe  laws  una- 
vailing; ignorance  and  poverty  among  lower  classes; 
in  the  state  church  plurality,  non-residence,  luxury 
and  indifference  among  the  upper  clergy;  poverty, 
immorality  and  ignorance  among  lower.  The  clergy 
were  scorned,  religion  was  laughed  at  and  appeared 
ready  to  perish.  Preaching  lost  all  distinctive  Chris- 
tian evangelical  elements,  and  only  insisted  on  ethics. 

DEISM  rose  in  England,  was  transplanted  to  France, 
thence  to  Germany  and  the  Netherlands,  everywhere 
exercising  disastrous  influence  on  evangelical  religion. 
It  was  a  system  of  natural  religion,  insisting  upon  (a) 
existence  of  God,  (b)  obligation  to  worship  Him,  (c) 
obligation  to  virtuous  living,  (d)  obligation  of  repent- 
ance, (e)  immortality,  (f)  rewards  and  punishments 
here  and  hereafter,  but  denying  revelation  (except  in 
nature),  miracles,  divinity  and  atoning  work  of  Christ; 
sought  the  elements  of  a  universal  religion,  acceptable 
to  all  parties  and  classes.  Its  father  was  Lord  Herbert 
of  Cherbury  (d.  1648)  ;  others  were  Thos.  Hobbes  (d. 
1679),  John  Locke  (d.  1704),  John  Toland  (d.  1722), 
Anthony  Collins  (d.  1729),  Mathew  Tindal  (d.  1733), 
Bolingbroke  (d.  1751),  David  Hume  (d.  1776),  Ed- 
ward Gibbon  (d.  1794). 

Closely  related  to  Deism  was  Arianism  (Socinian- 
ism),  which  insisted  on  the  reality  of  revelation,  but 
denied  the  essential  deity  and  atoning  work  of  Christ. 
This  worked  far  more  harmfully  among  the  masses 
of  Christians  than  Deism.  Founded  by  Samuel 


of  Church  History.  207 

Clarke  (d.  1729),  followed  by  Whiston  (d.  1752)  and 
Daniel  Whitby  (d.  1726). 

Deism  and  Socinianism  called  forth  able  defenders 
of  Christianity:  Joseph  Butler  (d.  1752),  bishop  of 
Bristol,  later  of  Durham;  Daniel  Waterland  (d.  1740), 
Wm.  Warburton  (d.  1779),  Geo.  Barkeley  (d.  1753), 
and  others. 

1.  DISSENTERS    (Independents,    Baptists,    Quakers. 
Presbyterians)    were  deeply  affected  by  the  genera] 
decline  in  morals  and  religious  fervor.    Not  only  was 
there  no  progress  in  the  early  part  of  the  period,  but 
positive  decline.     Presbyterians  were  swept  out  of  ex- 
istence by   Socinianism;   Calvmistic   Baptists  became 
hyper-Calvinistic,  orthodox,  dead  till  toward  end  of 
period.    Arminian  Baptists  almost  perished;  reorgan- 
ized and  started  afresh  by  Dan  Taylor  (1770).    Con- 
gregationaiists  and  Quakers   suffered   decline  in  the 
same  way. 

2.  ANGLICAN  CHURCH  showed  most  serious  decay. 
Some  two  hundred  clergymen  (nine  bishops,  including 
Ken   and   Sancroft)    refused  to  swear   allegiance   to 
William  and   Mary,   supporting  the   Stuarts  and   re- 
garding themselves  as  the  true  church   (nonjurors), 
kept   up   separate   organization   to    1805.     Union   of 
Scotland  with  England    (1707),  admitting  Presbyte- 
rians to  Parliament,  roused  high  churchmen;  punish- 
ment of  Sachverel,   1709;  triumph  of  Tories,   1710; 
George   I    (1714-27)    allied   himself   with   Whigs   in 
favor   of  toleration;   sermon  by   Hoadly,   Bishop   of 
Bangor   (1717),  favoring  liberty  of  conscience,  pre- 
cipitated the  "Bangorian  Controversy";  Convocation 
impeached  him  and  was  itself  suppressed  by  the  gov- 
ernment, 1717.    General  decline  until  beginning  of  the 
Wesleyan  revival. 


208  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

3.  RISE  OF  METHODISM.  The  Methodist  movement 
was  begun  (1738)  by  John  Wesley  (1703-91),  Chas. 
Wesley  (1708-88),  and  George  Whitefield  (1714-70), 
all  Oxford  men,  excellent  scholars,  linguists;  Wesleys 
of  an  old  and  honored  family,  sons  of  high  church  cler- 
gyman of  Epworth;  Whitefield,  son  of  an  innkeeper. 
John  Wesley  entered  Oxford  1720,  bachelor  1724,  or- 
dained 1725,  fellow  and  Greek  lecturer  1726,  a  posi- 
tion which  he  held  till  1735,  assisting  his  father,  1727- 
9,  when  he  returned  to  Oxford  (1729)  ;  his  brother 
Charles  Avas  known  as  "Methodist,"  because  of  his 
methodical  observance  of  the  regulations  of  the  Uni- 
versity; they,  Whitefield  and  others  formed  a  "Holy 
Club"  for  Bible  study,  prayer  and  practical  work,  and 
soon  the  name  "Methodists"  had  a  religious  meaning. 
Charles  had  entered  Oxford  1726,  bachelor  1730, 
tutor,  ordained  1735 ;  Wesleys  went  out  as  missiona- 
ries to  colonists  and  Indians  at  Savannah  1736-8;  con- 
tact with  Moravians  on  the  trip,  and  in  London  led 
to  conversion  of  John  in  England,  May  24,  1738. 
Whitefield  entered  Oxford  1732,  was  converted  1735, 
ordained  1736,  went  as  missionary  to  Georgia.  All 
three  began  evangelizing  in  England  1739 ;  opposition, 
open-air  preaching,  first  class-meeting  1739;  England, 
Scotland,  Wales,  Ireland  and  America  evangelized. 
Whitefield  was  moderate  Calvinist,  powerful  preacher, 
without  organizing  ability;  Lady  Huntingdon  gave 
him  access  to  the  nobility,  built  churches,  supported 
pastors,  founded  Trevecca  College,  South  Wales;  his 
followers,  called  "Lady  Huntingdon  Connection," 
were  Calvinistic  in  doctrine  and  congregational  in 
polity.  Charles  Wesley  was  the  poet  of  Methodism 
(6,500  hymns),  itinerant  preacher  to  1756,  when  he 


of  Church  History.  209 

settled  as  pastor  at  Bristol  and  later  at  London.  John 
Wesley,  preacher  (42,000  sermons)  and  organizer  of 
Methodism,  evangelical  Arminian,  insisting  on  the  wit- 
ness and  sanctification  of  the  Spirit,  reproducing  Mo- 
ravian piety,  powerfully  impressing  the  middle  and 
lower  classes;  never  wished  to  separate  from  the  An- 
glican church;  held  services  at  other  hours,  organized 
societies  in  the  church,  built  chapels,  long  used  lay 
workers.  Organization  grew  out  of  the  exigencies  of 
the  work:  Local  societies  organized  into  classes  with 
class  leaders,  a  steward  and  local  lay  preachers ;  several 
societies  formed  a  circuit,  with  several  "circuit  riders" 
and  a  presiding  elder ;  above  these  was  the  conference 
of  preachers.  Wesley  preached  moral  responsibility, 
free  grace,  universal  atonement,  possible  sanctification 
and  assurance.  A  new  joyous  type  of  Christianity, 
full  of  song,  assurance  and  vocal  demonstration;  in- 
fant baptism  retained,  immersion  the  original  but  not 
necessary  form,  service  taken  from  English  prayer- 
book.  First  conference  1744,  a  dispensary  1746,  a 
tract  society  1747.  First  academy  opened  1748,  Ar- 
minian Magazine  founded  1778;  Wesley  instituted 
legal  proceedings  to  make  permanent  the  conference, 
and  ordained  Coke  and  others  1784,  thus  beginning 
the  separation  which  was  completed  after  his  death. 

The  followers  of  Wesley  and  Whitefield  fell  into  a 
bitter  theological  feud.  Augustus  Toplady,  Rowland 
Hill  and  others  supported  Calvinism,  while  John 
Fletcher  of  Madeley,  and  others,  Arminianism. 

Before  the  close  of  the  period,  Baptists,  Congrega- 
tionalists  and  Anglicans  began  to  show  new  life,  usher- 
ing in  the  next  and  most  glorious  period  in  the  history 
of  English  Christianity.  Scotland  and  Ireland  were 
affected,  but  not  so  deeply  as  England. 


210  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

E.    AMERICA  TO  THE  REVOLUTION. 

References:  H.  ii.  875-91 ;  N.  ii.  563f,  615-18,  658,  666-77, 
691-6. 

All  types  of  European  Christianity  were  transplant- 
ed by  the  colonists  to  America,  and  in  some  cases  by 
law  established,  a.  Catholics.  Spanish  and  Portu- 
gese Catholics  settled  South  and  Central  America, 
Mexico,  West  Indies  and  southern  parts  of  North 
America ;  French  Catholics  the  region  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence, Great  Lakes  and  the  Mississippi,  1604  onward ; 
English  Catholics,  Maryland.  Catholics  did  much 
work  among  the  natives,  and  most  Indians  in  contact 
with  Catholics  were  soon  converted  to  that  faith, 
b.  Protestants  settled  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  in 
small,  independent,  more  or  less  hostile  colonies.  In 
Virginia  (1607  onward)  Anglicans;  also  in  North  and 
South  Carolina  population  was  mainly  Anglican,  so  in 
Georgia  (1735  onward)  ;  in  New  England  (1620  on- 
ward), Independents  and  Puritans,  fleeing  from  perse- 
cutions of  Laud;  in  New  York  (New  Amsterdam  till 
1664)  Dutch  Reformed  (Presbyterians),  1623  on- 
ward; New  Jersey,  Swedish  Lutherans;  West  Jersey 
and  Pennsylvania,  Quakers  (1682  onward);  German 
Lutherans,  Moravians  and  Reformed  in  Pennsylvania 
and  in  small  colonies  elsewhere;  Scotch  Irish  Presby- 
terians at  various  points  in  the  Alleghenies ;  French 
Huguenots  in  South  Carolina  and  elsewhere;  Rogei 
Williams,  a  Congregationalist,  driven  from  Boston, 
founded  colony  with  freedom  of  conscience  at  Provi- 
dence 1636,  and  1639  became  Baptist  and  organized 
first  Baptist  church  in  America. 

The  colonists,  especially  in  New  England,  were  de- 
voted to  education.  Public  schools  as  early  as  1640; 
Harvard  College  founded  1636,  William  and  Mary 
1693,  Yale  1701,  Princeton  1746,  Brown  1765. 


of  Church  History.  211 

Negro  slavery  introduced  at  Jamestown  1619  and 
by  1790  there  were  over  700,000;  came  direct  from 
Africa  and  from  West  Indies,  chiefly  in  South. 

1.  THE  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND  was  established  in 
Virginia   (first  church  Jamestown,   1607),  the  Caro- 
linas,  New  York   (after  1664)   and  Maryland   (after 
1655);  in  Virginia  well-endowed;  everywhere  except 
Virginia  it  contained  only  a  minority  of  the  people 
with  unworthy  ministers,  subject  to  England;  loyal- 
ists in  the  Revolution,  at  the  close  of  which  they  were 
weak  and  discouraged.     Then  separated  from  English 
Church,  revised  the  prayerbook  and  adopted  name, 
"Protestant   Episcopal   Church"    1785.     Samuel   Sea- 
bury  was  consecrated  their  first  bishop  by  non-juring 
bishops   of    Scotland    1784;    Provost   and    White   by 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  1787. 

2.  CONGREGATIONALISTS     formed     the     established 
church    of    Massachusetts    and    Connecticut     (First 
Church    Plymouth    1620,    Mayflower),   Calvinistic   in 
theology,     semi-presbyterial     in     polity,     theocratic, 
church   membership   being   necessary   to   citizenship; 
many   able   and   learned   men.     Cambridge    Platform 
(1648)    strongly    presbyterial ;    public    profession    of 
faith  necessary  to  communion,  only  those  in  commun- 
ion were  eligible  to  office  and  the  rights  of  citizenship 
or  had  right  to  have  their  children  baptized;  all  re- 
quired to  assist  in  support  of  the  ministry;  object  was 
to  eliminate  dissent;  half-way  Covenant   (1662)   ex- 
tended privileges  of  baptism  to  children  or  persons 
who  were  moral  and  orthodox  even  though  not  ad- 
mitted to  communion ;  in  practice  this  regulation  was 
extended  to  include  children   of  others;  bitter  con- 
troversy ;  decline  of  religion ;  "Stoddardism ;"  failure 


212  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

of  attempts  to  unite  with  Presbyterians ;  Presbyterian- 
izing  of  Congregational  churches  by  associations  in 
Massachusetts  (1705)  was  never  effective,  but  in  Con- 
necticut it  was  accomplished  by  Saybrook  Platform 
(1708).  Immorality,  deadness  and  Socinianism  af- 
fected American  churches  of  the  period  as  those  of 
England;  tide  turned  by  Great  Awakening;  Gilbert 
Tennant  and  other  Presbyterians  in  middle  colonies 
(1726  onward),  Jonathan  Edwards  at  Northampton 
(1734  onward),  assisted  by  visits  from  Geo.  White- 
field  throughout  all  the  colonies  1739  onward.  Many 
thousands  converted;  much  opposition  in  New  Eng- 
land by  preachers,  and  by  Harvard  and  Yale ;  churches 
split,  people  separated  and  formed  new  evangelical 
churches,  known  as  "Separates"  or  "New  Lights," 
many  preachers  professed  conversion.  Developed 
"New  England  Theology,"  a  modified  evangelistic 
Calvinism.  Revival  continued  at  intervals  almost  to 
the  Revolution. 

3.  PRESBYTERIANS  —  English,    Dutch,    Irish  —  scat- 
tered in  the  Jerseys,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Mary- 
land,  Virginia  and  elsewhere,  began  to  be  aroused 
and  organized  1683  by  Francis  Makemie;  first  presby- 
tery (Philadelphia)  organized  1705 ;  1716  the  seven- 
teen churches  of  America  organized  first  synod;  1729 
the   synod  adopted  the   Westminster   symbols;   "Old 
Side"  insisted  on  educated  ministry  and  discouraged 
the  revival,  "New  Side"  insisted  on  converted  ministry 
and  favored  revival;  split  1741  to  1758;  Presbyterians 
were  strong  patriots. 

4.  BAPTISTS  sprang  up  on  American  soil  and  were 
but  slightly  reinforced  by  immigration.     Roger  Wil- 
liams (1604-83)  reached  conviction  that  only  immer- 


of  Church  History.  213 

sion  of  a  believer  was  baptism,  was  baptized  by  E. 
Holliman  and  he  baptized  Holliman  and  others 
(1639).  He  and  his  followers  were  Calvinistic  ("Par- 
ticular") Baptists;  soon  Arminian  Baptists  ("Gen- 
eral") appeared  and  quickly  got  the  lead.  Also  "Sev- 
enth Day  Baptists,"  "Six  Principle  Baptists."  They 
grew  slowly  to  Great  Awakening,  Providence,  Phila- 
delphia and  Charleston  being  chief  centers.  Phila- 
delphia Association  organized  1707.  Great  Awaken- 
ing opposed  by  many  Baptists,  but  it  put  Calvinism 
in  the  ascendancy  and  aroused  Baptists  to  more  evan- 
gelistic zeal.  Many  of  the  Pedo-Baptist  converts 
(Separates),  especially  in  New  England,  became  Bap- 
tists ("Separate  Baptists")  1750  onward;  the  older 
Baptists  were  then  called  "Regular  Baptists."  Trans- 
planted from  New  England  to  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina  by  Shubael  Stearns  and  Daniel  Marshall,  the 
"Separate  Baptists"  flourished  greatly  (Sandy  Creek 
Association)  ;  the  two  parties,  at  first  unfriendly,  were 
almost  entirely  united  before  end  of  century,  forming 
in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  and  Kentucky  the 
"United  Baptists."  London  Confession  of  1689  (be- 
ing an  adaptation  of  the  Westminster  Confession)  was 
adapted  and  adopted  by  the  Philadelphia  Association 
(1742),  and  hence  is  known  as  Philadelphia  Confes- 
sion of  Faith.  Rhode  Island  College  (Brown  Uni- 
versity) founded  1765,  James  Manning  first  President. 
5.  OTHER  DENOMINATIONS.  (a)  Catholics  were 
very  few  and  discouraged  at  close  of  Revolution,  (b) 
Lutherans  and  Moravians  in  low  condition.  (c) 
Quakers  persecuted  by  Massachusetts  1656-60  (three 
men,  one  woman  executed),  settled  in  New  Jersey, 
Delaware  and  Pennsylvania  (1681),  flourished  greatly 


214  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

till  toward  end  of  period,  (d)  Methodists  began  in 
New  York  1766  by  Philip  Embury  and  Barbara  Heck, 
then  Maryland  and  Virginia;  first  Conference  1773; 
Wesley  ordained  Thos.  Coke  superintendent  for 
America  1784,  and  in  December,  1784,  Coke  ordained 
Francis  Asbury  in  Baltimore  and  they  organized  the 
"Methodist  Episcopal  Church."  Wesley  gave  them 
a  liturgy,  rules,  and  a  modification  of  the  39  Articles 
as  a  creed. 

THIRD  DIVISION,  1789  TO  1908. 
GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 

This  in  many  respects  the  most  progressive  and 
glorious  period  in  the  world's  history. 

1.  POLITICALLY.  (a)  Growth  of  constitutional, 
popular  government  has  been  marked,  (b)  Growth 
in  size  and  power  of  United  States ;  (c)  unification  of 
Germany,  foundation  of  the  empire  1870;  (d)  unifi- 
cation of  Italy  and  establishment  of  kingdom  1870; 
(e)  freedom  of  South  and  Central  American  repub- 
lics and  Mexico;  (f)  France  becomes  republic  (1870), 
Brazil  1890;  (g)  Kingdom  of  Holland  founded  1815, 
Belgium  1830,  Norway  secedes  from  Sweden  and  be- 
comes kingdom  1906;  (h)  Holy  Roman  Empire  dis- 
solved and  the  Austrian  Empire  formed  1806;  (i) 
Austria  reduced  by  the  loss  of  Northern  Italy  and  the 
Netherlands,  Spain  by  the  loss  of  her  whole  colonial 
empire;  (j)  China  in  1840  and  Japan  in  1851  opened 
to  foreign  commerce,  religion  and  settlement.  Japan 
adopts  western  education,  science  and  government  and 
takes  place  as  one  of  the  great  nations,  (k)  Russia 
expands  over  Northern  Asia  (Siberia)  to  the  Pacific. 


of  Church  History.  215 

(1)  Turkey  is  almost  driven  from  Europe  and  several 
independent  and  semi-independent  Christian  states  set 
up  in  Southeastern  Europe — Greece  declared  her  in- 
dependence 1821  and  founded  kingdom  with  approval 
of  European  powers  1832 ;  Servia  became  independent 
principality  1817  and  kingdom  1882;  Montenegro  and 
Bulgaria  became  semi-independent  principalities  1878; 
Roumania  became  a  principality  1861  and  kingdom 
1881.  (m)  Africa  divided  among  the  great  powers, 
who  colonize  and  exploit  it.  (n)  Wonderful  expan- 
sion of  English  speaking  peoples,  (o)  Hague  Peace 
Conferences  1899  and  1907  and  wide  adoption  of  prin- 
ciple of  arbitration  and  other  means  of  limiting  the 
probability  and  horrors  of  war.  (p)  Geneva  Conven- 
tion (Red  Cross)  1864  for  protection  of  sick  and 
wounded. 

2.  RELIGIOUSLY  it  has  been  marked  by  (a)  expan-  x 
sion  of  Greek  Church  in  territory  and  political  power, 
(b)  by  rise  of  Roman  Catholic  states  of  Italy,  Bel- 
gium and  all  American  states  from  Mexico  south- 
ward ;  the  decline  of  Catholic  Spain,  Austria  and 
France;  (c)  rise  of  Protestant  states  of  Holland,  Ger- 
many, Norway  and  the  great  British  colonies  of  Can- 
ada, South  Africa,  New  Zealand  and  Australia;  great 
expansion  of  the  Protestant  United  States;  (d)  ex- 
pansion of  Protestantism  through  missions  into  all 
parts  of  the  world;  (e)  separation  of  church  and  state 
in  all  the  newer  nations  and  in  Ireland  (1869)  and 
France  (1905).  (f)  Adoption  of  religious  toleration 
in  all  lands,  Christian  and  non-Christian,  (g)  Disso- 
lution of  all  ecclesiastical  courts  and  states,  including 
the  papal  state,  (h)  Great  expansion  of  Protestant 
missionary  activity  among  all  denominations;  (i)  rise 


216  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

of  many  auxiliary  Christian  organizations;  Sunday- 
schools  (Robt.  Raikes  1780),  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association  (Geo.  Williams  1844),  Salvation  Army 
(Wm.  Booth  1861),  Young  Peoples  Societies  (F.  E. 
Clark  1881),  rise  of  women's  missionary  societies, 
(j)  Rise  of  several  new  denominations  especially  in 
America — Mormons,  Disciples,  Christian  Scientists, 
etc. — more  recently  a  tendency  toward  union  among 
Protestants  at  many  places,  (k)  Tremendous  inter- 
est in  the  Bible:  Revisions  and  translations,  popular 
study,  study  in  schools  and  colleges,  critical  study 
(lower  and  higher),  exploration  of  Bible  lands.  (1) 
Decline  of  interest  in  dogmatic  theology,  creeds,  cate- 
chisms ;  emphasis  on  the  application  of  Christian  prin- 
ciples to  practical  life,  (m)  Great  expansion  of  re- 
ligious press.  (n)  Extensive  charities;  (o)  home 
missions  and  revival  type  of  Christianity,  (p)  Vig- 
orous criticism  of  Bible  and  life  of  Christ,  going  from 
Germany  to  America  and  other  lands,  dividing  all 
churches  into  hostile  camps. 

3.  SOCIALLY  AND  ECONOMICALLY  the  period  has 
been  marked  by  (a)  rise  of  the  masses  in  education, 
wealth,  comfort,  influence,  (b)  Complete  abolition 
of  slavery  in  all  Christian  lands,  (c)  adoption  of  uni- 
versal suffrage  in  many  countries,  (d)  tremendous 
aggregations  of  capital  in  conflict  with  organized 
labor,  (e)  struggle  with  slum,  intemperance,  gamb- 
ling, "the  social  evil;"  (f)  general  diffusion  of  intelli- 
gence through  the  daily,  weekly,  monthly  and  quar- 
terly press  and  the  great  multiplication  of  books ;  (g) 
enormous  increase  of  wealth,  from  manufacture,  ag- 
riculture, commerce,  mining;  (h)  advance  in  surgery 
and  medical  knowledge,  resulting  in  improved  health, 


of  Church  History.  217 

lower  death  rate,  longer  life;  (i)  consequent  rapid 
expansion  of  population,  (j)  Various  migrations  of 
peoples ;  (k)  increasing  religious  complexity  due  to 
extension  of  denominations  everywhere. 

4.  EDUCATIONALLY,     (a)    Widespread   adoption  of 
free  school  system  from  primary  school  to  university, 
often  compulsory  in  lower  grades,   (b)   illiteracy  has 
almost  disappeared  from  some  countries,     (c)   Great 
literature   (mainly  favorable  to  Christianity)   in  Ger- 
many,  France,   England,   Norway,   America,   Russia, 
Italy. 

5.  DISCOVERIES  AND  INVENTIONS,     (a)  Almost  the 
entire  surface  of  the  earth  has  been  explored  except 
about  the  poles,  (b)  wonderful  discoveries  in  all  nat- 
ural   sciences — astronomy,   geology,    chemistry,    zool- 
ogy, biology,  etc.     (c)  Subjection  of  steam  and  elec- 
tricity to  service  of  man. 

6.  THOUGHT.       Intellectual  activity  has  been  very 
great.     (1)   It  has  been  predominantly  scientific,  de- 
veloping the  doctrine  of  evolution  which  has  modified 
every  phase  of  thought.     (Darwin   1859)  ;    (2)   his- 
torical method  and  attitude  have  been  applied  to  every 
phase   of   life;   political   history   and   church   history 
have  been  recast  and  rewritten,  ancient  history  revo- 
lutionized, the  history  of  society,  etc.,  written  for  first 
time.      (3)     Philosophical    thought    rather    decayed 
(Fichte,  Schelling,  Hegel,  Herbart,  Lotze,  Schopen- 
hauer, Spencer)  in  first  half  of  period,  gradually  re- 
viving since   1860.     (4)    Much  thought  is  material- 
istic, semi-pantheistic,  anti-supernatural,   rationalistic, 
skeptical. 


218  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

I.  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN  GENERAL. 

References:  N.  ii.  442-67,  492-518;  H.  ii.  757-9,  770f,  853-5; 
K  Sees.  185-91;  A.  iii.  626-964. 

1.  FRENCH  REVOLUTION,  1789-1814.  Period  opens 
with  French  Revolution  which  profoundly  affected 
the  whole  church,  all  Europe.  An  effort  at  "Liberty, 
equality,  fraternity,"  aimed  at  state  and  church  as 
then  constituted,  due  to  absolutism  and  oppression  in 
state,  wealth  and  corruption  in  church ;  skepticism  and 
even  atheism;  state  and  church  allies  against  the  peo- 
ple. Upper  clergy  wealthy,  worldly,  corrupt;  lower 
clergy  poor,  ignorant,  inefficient.  Church  owned  half 
the  landed  and  much  other  property  of  France,  was 
recipient  of  royal  gifts  and  enjoyed  right  of  demand- 
ing tithes ;  the  clergy,  one-hundredth  of  the  popula- 
'*  tion,  enjoyed  one-fifth  of  income  of  France.  Finan- 
cial embarrassment  of  the  government  compelled  call- 
ing of  the  Estates  General  (clergy,  nobility,  commons 
or  third  estate)  which  became 

(1)  The  National  or  Constituent  Assembly  (May, 
1789- April,  1791).  Third  Estate  quickly  gets  the  upper 
hand  and  undertakes  to  reform  France  and  give  her  a 
constitution.  Storming  of  Bastile  July  14,  1789; 
abolition  of  feudal  system  August  4,  of  tithing  sys- 
tem August  10,  December  21  freedom  of  worship  and 
full  citizenship  given  Huguenots,  and  a  little  later  to 
all  other  dissenters;  November  2  all  church  property 
•was  confiscated  and  the  state  undertook  to  support  the 
church ;  February  14,  1790,  monastic  orders  were  abol- 
ished; on  July  12  was  adopted  "The  Civil  Constitution 
of  the  Church,"  abolishing  existing  organization  of 
the  church  in  France  and  its  relation  to  the  papacy; 


of  Church  History.  219 

establishing  ten  metropolitans  and  eighty-three  bishops 
(instead  of  136)  with  dioceses  corresponding  to  poli- 
tical divisions;  bishops  and  priests  to  be  chosen  by 
electors  as  other  officers  of  state,  inducted  into  office 
by  metropolitans  and  bishops  after  swearing  allegiance 
to  the  state;  a  theological  seminary  in  every  diocese. 
Most  of  the  clergy,  higher  and  lower,  refused  to  swear 
allegiance  to  this  constitution  (non- jurors),  were  de- 
posed and  their  places  filled  by  others  ("Constitutional 
Clergy")  ;  Pius  VI  condemned  the  constitution  (April, 
1791)  and  forbade  the  new  clergy  to  exercise  their 
functions;  assembly  confiscated  Avignon  and  Venna- 
issin  which  belonged  to  pope ;  much  rioting  and  blood- 
shed; many  clergy  and  nobles  emigrate. 

(2)  Legislative  Assembly    (October,   1791-Septem- 
ber,  1792.)     Wholesale  massacre  of  non-juring  priests 
at    Avignon,    Paris    (300,    an    archbishop    and    two 
bishops),  Meaux,  Rennes,  Lyons  and  elsewhere.     Ar- 
rest of  the  king,  Louis  XVI,  August  10,  1792,  and 
calling  of 

(3)  National  Convention    (September,    1792-Octo- 
ber,  1795).     September  21,  1792,  France  declared  to 
be  a  republic;  January  21,  1793,  king  executed;  Reign, 
of  Terror;  coalition  of   foreign  powers  against  the 
Revolution ;  non-juring  clergy  banished  in  April  and 
constitutional  clergy  allowed  to  marry;  September  22 
names  of  days  and  months  changed  and  ten  day  period 
substituted  for  week;  execution  of  Marie  Antoinette 
in  October,  Christianity  abolished  in  November  and 
worship    of    Reason    instituted;    churches    desecrated 
throughout   France.     Reaction   in    1794;   worship   of 
Reason  abolished,  a  Supreme  Being  and  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul  recognized;  Catholic  and  Protestant 
worship  permitted  1795. 


220  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

(4)  The  Directory  (1795-9).  Coalition  war  against 
France  1792  onward ;  great  French  success ;  Napoleon 
appears  1794 ;  Directory  gradually  restores  order '  in 
the  state  and  carries  on  successful  war  against  outer 
foes;  1795  pope  joined  the  coalition  against  France; 
Napoleon  invades  Italy,  captures  Rome  1798,  dissolves 
papal  state,  founds  Roman  Republic,  carries  pope 
prisoner  to  France  where  he  dies  1799;  succeeded  by 
Pius  VII  (1800-20).  French  defeats  lead  to  inde- 
pendence of  papal  state. 

5.  Consulate  (1799-1804).  Napoleon  first  consul. 
Concordat  with  Pius  VII  in  1801 — Catholicism  recog- 
nized as  religion  of  majority  of  Frenchmen,  all  exist- 
ing bishops  required  to  resign,  number  of  bishops  re- 
duced to  sixty,  all  archbishops  and  bishops  nominated 
by  Napoleon,  consecrated  by  pope;  all  higher  clergy 
compelled  to  take  oath  of  allegiance,  lower  clergy 
must  be  satisfactory  to  government;  clergy  paid  by 
state ;  pope  renounces  all  right  to  confiscated  property, 
forgave  married  clergy ;  civil  control  of  worship.  No 
provision  for  restoration  of  monasticism;  Protestants 
and  Jews  soon  accorded  same  rights  as  Catholics, 
their  clergy  and  worship  being  supported  and  con- 
trolled by  state. 

By  Peace  of  Luneville  February,  1801,  France  re- 
ceived all  territory  on  left  bank  of  Rhine,  and  to  com- 
pensate the  various  states  which  lost  territory  (Ba- 
varia, Baden,  Wurtemburg,  Prussia,  Oldenburg,  Han- 
over, from  which  this  territory  was  taken)  most  of 
the  ecclesiastical  states  and  the  imperial  cities  (except 
Liibeck,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Frankfort,  Augsburg, 
Nuremburg)  were  confiscated  and  apportioned  among 
them  (1803). 


of  Church  History.  221 

(6)  Empire  (1804-15).  Napoleon  crowned  em- 
peror December  2,  1804,  after  anointing  by  Pius  VII 
at  Paris ;  soon  broke  with  the  pope,  incorporated  papal 
state  into  France  (1809),  and  when  pope  protested 
imprisoned  him  in  Savona  and  Fontainebleau,  where 
(January,  1813)  pope  signed  concordat  giving  up 
papal  state.  Napoleon's  reverses  led  him  to  ^release 
the  pope  March  10,  1814;  Jesuit  Society  reorganized 
by  pope  August  7,  1814;  Congress  of  Vienna  (1815) 
restored  to  him  the  papal  state,  but  not  the  confiscated 
property  of  Germany  and  France. 

2.  PERIOD  OF  REACTION   (1815-48).     Ultramontan- 
ism ;  emphasis  on  papal  infallibility  and  authority,  op- 
position to  civil,   intellectual  and  academic  freedom, 
bitterness  towards  Protestantism,  Bible  societies,  Free- 
masons ;   favorable  concordats  with  German,   Dutch, 
South  American  and  other  states ;  Jubilee  1825 ;  eman- 
cipation  of   Catholics   in   England   1829 ;   widespread 
revolution  1830,  Belgium  becomes  independent  Cath- 
olic state ;  successful  struggle  with  Prussia  over  mixed 
marriages  and  academic  freedom.     Austria  called  in 
to  suppress  rebellion  in  papal  state  1831. 

3.  Pius  IX  (1846-78),  at  first  a  liberal,  becomes  a 
reactionary  after  the  year  of  the  Revolution  (1848), 
favoring   Jesuits,   fostering   superstition,   condemning 
every  form  of  freedom,  etc.     Assumed  authority  to 
declare  immaculate  conception  of  Mary  to  be  a  dogma 
of  the  church  December  8,  1854  (CC.  II  21  If)  ;  pub- 
lished Syllabus  of  Errors  December  8,  1864  (CC.  II 
213-33)  ;  celebrated  19th  centennial  of  death  of  Peter 
and  Paul  (1867)  ;  Vatican  Council  (December  8,  1869- 
October  20,  1870)  declared  infallibility  of  pope  (CC. 
II    234-71);    Italy    gradually    united    under    Victor 


222  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

Emanuel,  king  of  Sardinia  (1859-70)  ;  capture  of 
Rome  (September  20,  1870),  made  capital  of  the  new 
kingdom;  papal  state  confiscated,  pope  permitted  to 
retain  Vatican,  have  his  own  postal  system,  govern- 
ment, officials,  handsome  income.  Vatican  Council 
led  to  schism  of  some  70,000  Catholics,  chiefly  in  Aus- 
tria (Old  Catholics  1873  onward)  ;  held  to  Scripture 
versus  tradition,  councils  of  first  five  centuries,  com- 
munion in  both  kinds,  marriage  of  clergy,  use  of  ver- 
nacular, renunciation  of  papal  authority ;  the  body  has 
not  flourished,  but  dwindled. 

4.  LATEST  PERIOD  (1878-1908),    Leo  XIII  (1878- 
1903),  "peace  pope,"  a  skilled  diplomat,  but  reaction- 
ary, ultramontane ;  restored  friendly  relations  with  the 

various  powers.     Pius  X  (1903- ),  pious,  earnest, 

but  mediaeval  and  unskilled  in  diplomacy ;  at  war  with 
France   1904  onward;  new   Syllabus   of  Errors  and 
encyclical   on   Modernism    1907    (Catholic   Review). 
In  1908  he  removed  United  States,  Canada,  Nether- 
lands and  other  countries  from  the  position  of  mission 
fields. 

5.  CATHOLIC  MISSIONS  have  been  vigorously  pushed 
in  all  parts  of  the  world ;  directed  by  the  Propaganda 
at  Rome,  supported  by  various  societies,  e.  g.,  "So- 
ciety for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,"  founded  1822 
at   Lyons,    "Association   of   the   Holy   Childhood   of 
Jesus,"  founded  at  Paris  1844,  and  others;  also  by 
various  governments,  by  income  of  the  orders  and  in- 
vested funds  of  the  Propaganda.    Jesuits,  Franciscans, 
Dominicans,  Lazarists  and  others  furnish  the  mission- 
aries ;  equipped  with  schools  and  colleges  for  training 
missionaries,  educating  children,  etc. ;  strong  religious 
press;  missions  well  organized  at  home  and  in  most 
of  the  nations  of  the  earth. 


of  Church  History.  223 

II.     CHRISTIANITY  IN  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE. 

Christian  history  now  becomes  so  complex  that  it 
seems  best  to  treat  it  by  countries. 

1.  GERMANY. 

References:  N.  ii.  544-63;  H.  ii.  745-52;  K.  Sees.  176-84, 
193-97;  A.  iii.  965-94. 

(1)  Political  History.     Wars  of  Napoleon  greatly 
harried  but  thoroughly  aroused   Germany;    political 
conditions  much  modified,  ecclesiastical  states  and  free 
cities  almost  disappear;  empire  was  dissolved   1806, 
leaving  the  states  free  and  independent ;  German  Bund 
formed  at  congress  of  Vienna  1815  composed  of  thirty- 
five  states  and  cities,  of  which  Austria,  Prussia  and 
Bavaria   were  the   leading  ones ;   tariff  union   1833 ; 
revolutions  force  the  princes  to  grant  constitutions  in 
several   states;   attempt  to   form   a   German   Empire 
1848-9  failed  through   rivalry  of  Prussia  and  Aus- 
tria; in  war  of  1864  Austria  and  Prussia  take  from 
Denmark  the  duchies  of  Lauenburg,  Schleswig  and 
Holstein;  the  war  of  1866,  Prussia  and  small  North 
German  states  defeat  Austria,  supported  by  Saxony, 
Hanover,  both  Hesses,  Bavaria,  Wurtemburg,  Baden, 
etc.;  German  Bund  dissolved;  Austria  excluded  from 
Germany,     Schleswig-Holstein,     Hanover,     Electoral 
Hesse,  Nassau  and  Frankfort  incorporated  in  Prussia ; 
North  German  Bund  formed  1867  under  leadership 
of  Prussia;  victorious  war  with  France  1870-1 ;  organ- 
ization of  German  Empire  January  18,  1871,  at  Paris 
(Bismarck)  with  Prussia  at  its  head,  including  all  the 
German  states  except  Austria. 

(2)  Religious  History.    Astounding  intellectual  ac- 
tivity along  all  lines:    Church  history,  exegesis  (Old 


224  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

and  New  Testament),  theology,  lives  of  Christ, 
church  government;  Germany  the  theological  teacher 
of  the  world ;  weakness  in  practical  matters ;  Missions 
(home  and  foreign),  charities,  preaching.  Churches 
supported  by  the  states,  dissenters  tolerated  with  con- 
siderable restrictions;  masses  irreligious,  often  athe- 
istical (socialism)  ;  universities  usually  rationalistic, 
anti-supernatural. 

a.  Rationalism  continued  throughout  the  period,  but 
was  early  modified  by  the  philosophy  of  Kant  (1724- 
1804),  Fichte  (1762-1814),  Schelling  (1775-1854)  and 
especially  Hegel  (1770-1831)  and  by  the  theology  of 
Schleiermacher    (1768-1834),    Neander    (1789-1850) 
and  others;  apparently  almost  dead  it  was  aroused 
anew  (1835)  by  D.  F.  Strauss'  "Life  of  Jesus,"  by  the 
Tubingen  School  of  New  Testament  criticism  founded 
by   F.   C.    Baur    (1826-60)    and   the   Old   Testament 
school  of  Wellhausen,  Kuenen  and  others.     Albrecht 
Ritschl    (1822-89)    founded  school  of  theology  now 
represented  by  Harnack,  Kaftan  and  others. 

b.  Super  naturalistic  Views  have  stood  over  against 
this   rationalism.     The   sufferings   of  the   Napoleonic 
period  aroused  religious  interest;  likewise  the  work  of 
Schleiermacher ;    so    Reformation    Centennial     1817, 
bringing   about   union    of    Lutherans   and    Calvinists 
(Evangelical  Union)  in  Nassau  and  Prussia,  universi- 
ties of  Halle  and  Wittenberg  united;  union  in  the 
Palatinate  1818,  Baden  1821,  Hesse  1823  and  other 
small    states    later;   union    and    introduction   of   new 
liturgy   caused    small    split   of   orthodox   Lutherans; 
persecuted    and    driven    to    America;    Hengstenberg 
(1802-69),  the  ablest  and  most  violent  supernaturalist. 

c.  Mediating  School  marked  by  ability,  piety,  learn- 
ing; have  handled  Bible  freely,  but  have  insisted  on 


of  Church  History.  225 

divinity  of  Christ,  fact  of  revelation  and  miracle,  sub- 
stantial accuracy  of  Scripture;  Tholuck,  Dorner, 
Rothe,  Lange,  et  al. 

d.  High    Church   Lutheran   party    insists   on    im- 
portance  of   church   and   ordinances.       Stahl,    Franz 
Delitzsch. 

e.  Expulsion   of  Jesuits,   Redemptorists,   Lazarists, 
etc.,  1872.     Kulturkampf  (1873-87),  struggle  to  con- 
trol ultramontane  tendencies  of  the  Catholics. 

f.  Other   denominations.     Baptists   began    work   in 
Germany  1834 ;  persecuted  and  grew  slowly ;  now  have 
38,000  members,  seminary  at  Hamburg,  organizations 
extending  over  the  empire.     Methodists  also  at  work. 

2.  AUSTRIA  AND  EASTERN  EUROPE.      (References: 
K.    Sec.    198.)     Little   of   religious    interest   has    ap- 
peared  in   these   countries.     The   small   countries    of 
the  Balkan  peninsula  have  been  freed  from  Turkish 
misrule,  but  are  more  or  less  dependent  on  Austria 
and  Russia;  Mohammedans,  Greek  Catholics  and  Ro- 
man Catholics;  in  Austria  there  has  developed  since 
1897  a  strong  "Loose  from  Rome"  movement;  several 
thousand    persons    have    become    Protestants,    chiefly 
Lutherans.     Protestantism  is  now  tolerated  and  pro- 
tected by  government  in  all  these  lands,  is  supported 
by  German  churches  and  is  making  progress. 

3.  ITALY.     (References:     K.  Sec.  204.)     Was  left 
by   Congress   of   Vienna    (1815)    divided;   so   it   re- 
mained  to    1859,    revolutions    and    efforts    at    union 
being  suppressed  by  Austria  and  France;  three  union 
parties  (1)  union  under  pope,  (2)  union  as  a  republic 
(Garibaldi),   (3)  union  under  Sardinia  (Cavour  and 
Sardinian  kings).     Sardinia,  supported  by  France,  de- 
feated Austria   1859,  thus  winning  Lombardy;  Tus- 


226  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

cany,  Parma,  Modena,  Legations  drove  out  their  rulers 
and  united  by  vote  with  Sardinia  March,  1860;  Gari- 
baldi overthrew  the  government  of  the  two  Sicilies, 
which  were  then  incorporated  into  Sardinia  by  vote 
(October,  1860)  ;  1861  name  was  changed  from  King- 
dom of  Sardinia  to  Kingdom  of  Italy;  1865  Florence 
was  made  capital;  1866,  Italy  as  ally  of  Prussia,  re- 
ceived Venice  from  Austria,  and  when  French  troops 
were  withdrawn  (1870)  Rome  was  taken  September 
20,  and  (1871)  made  capital.  None  of  the  states  had 
tolerated  Protestants,  but  united  Italy  tolerates  and 
protects  them  since  1870.  Now  30,000  or  more  Wal- 
denses;  small  contingent  of  Baptists  (American  and 
English)  ;  American  Methodists. 

4.  SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL.      (References:    K.   Sec. 
205.)     Spain  had  begun  to  decline  under  Philip  IV 
(1621-65),  Dutch  Netherlands  being  given  up  1648, 
Portugal  reasserted  its  independence  1640;  in  Wars 
of  Spanish  Succession   (1700-14)   Spain  lost  Belgian 
Netherlands,  Naples,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Lombardy  and 
Gibraltar;    Napoleon   placed    on   throne    his    brother 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  but  the  Spanish  people,  assisted  by 
English,  successfully  resisted;  all  the  countries  on  the 
American  mainland  gained  their  independence  (1810- 
26)  ;  Florida  ceded  to  United  States  1819 ;  government 
unstable  throughout   19th  century,  struggle  between 
liberals  and  reactionaries ;  Inquisition  abolished  1834 ; 
church  intolerant;   anti-clerical   demonstrations;   very 
few  Protestants;  Spain  loses  Cuba,  Porto  Rico  and 
Philippines   1898;  sold  other  islands  to  Germany,  is 
now  without  colonies. 

5.  FRANCE.      (References:      N.    ii.    599-603;    K. 
Sec.  203.)        (1)  Political  History.       Monarchy  was 


of  Church  History.  227 

restored  (Louis  XVIII)  by  Congress  of  Vienna  1815; 
July  Revolution  (1830)  overthrew  the  Bourbon 
Charles  X  and  raised  Louis  Philippe  to  the  throne; 
monarchy  overthrown  (1848)  and  second  Republic 
formed  (1848-52)  under  presidency  of  Louis  Napol- 
eon who  is  elected  Emperor  (1852-70)  ;  monarchy  lost 
Alsace-Lorraine  and  was  again  overthrown  in  Franco- 
German  war  (1870),  Third  Republic  was  formed  and 
continues  to  present. 

(2)  Religious  History,  a.  Catholicism.  Napoleon's 
concordat  remained  in  force  till  1905 ;  religious  orders 
gradually  returned,  some  legally,  more  illegally,  en- 
gaged in  teaching,  manufacture,  etc. ;  French  church 
fostered  superstition;  Lourdes  (1858),  LaSalette 
(1846),  holy  coat  of  Treves  exhibited  1844  and  1891 ; 
struggle  with  ultramontane  church  began  c.  1880;  ex- 
pulsion of  the  orders,  and  secularizing  of  the  schools 
(1901),  disestablishment  1905.  At  present  strong 
critical  and  liberalistic  tendency  in  French  Catholic 
church;  atheism  is  rampant;  religious  condition  of 
France  deplorable ;  church  and  state  at  dead-lock  over 
church  property,  while  church  has  been  disestablished. 

b.  Protestants  (Reformed,  Lutherans,  Jews)  sup- 
ported and  controlled  by  the  state  till  1905  when  they 
were  disestablished ;  few  Lutherans  outside  Alsace ; 
Reformed  have  seminary  at  Montauban ;  divided  into 
liberal  and  orthodox  wings ;  "Union  of  Evangelical 
Churches,"  free  from  state,  formed  1848 ;  "Declaration 
of  Faith"  adopted  1872,  the  basis  of  the  state  sup- 
ported church,  but  the  liberals  have  not  regarded  it. 
Reformed  number  c.  600,000.  Very  influential ;  a  few 
Baptists,  Methodists,  Presbyterians;  McAll  missions. 

6.  SWITZERLAND.  (References:  K.  Sec.  199.)  Made 
a  loose  independent  confederation  by  congress  of 


228  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

Vienna  1815;  Catholics  seceded  1848,  but  were  over- 
powered and  the  confederacy  strengthened ;  frequent 
struggles  between  Catholics  and  government;  increas- 
ing liberalism  among  Protestants;  struggle  and  divis- 
ion; evangelicals  led  by  Haldane,  Malan,  Vinet  were 
persecuted;  church  still  etsablished  in  Switzerland; 
radical  criticism  in  Universities  of  Zurich  and  Basel. 

7.  HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM.     (Reference:    K.  Sec. 
200.)     By  the  revolution  of  1830  the  Catholic  prov- 
inces of  the  Netherlands  became  an  independent  state, 
Belgium.     Since  then  there  has  been  constant  struggle 
between  the  liberals  and  Ultramontanes  in  this  coun- 
try; few  Protestants.     In  Holland  the  Reformed  has 
continued  to  be  the  state  church,  but  Remonstrants, 
Mennonites,  Lutherans  present  and  tolerated;  increas- 
ing rationalism  led  to  formation  of  independent  ortho- 
dox   church    1839,    "Christian    Reformed    Church;" 
three  parties  developed   in   state  church,    (1)    Strict 
Calvinist,  led  by  A.  Kuyper ;   (2)   Middle  party,   (3) 
Radical  party,  "Moderns,"  led  by  Kuenen  with  centre 
in   University   of   Leyden;   bitter   strife;   strict  party 
formed  "Confessional  Union"  and  a  "Free  Reformed 
University"  at  Amsterdam  1880;  liberal  party  formed 
"Protestant  Federation."     No  doctrinal  tests  now  re- 
quired for  confirmation  or  ordination.     Catholic  hier- 
archy reorganized  1853 ;  now  several  thousand  Catho- 
lics with  monks  and  nuns. 

8.  SCANDANAVIAN    COUNTRIES.       (Reference:     K. 
Sec.  201.)     All  three  countries  were  suffering  from 
rationalism    and    dead    orthodoxy    at    beginning    of 
period.    In  Denmark,  1849,  dissenters  were  given  full 
civil  rights,  1851  civil  marriage,  1857  compulsory  bap- 
tism  abolished,    1868   right   of   forming   independent 


of  Church  History.  229 

congregations  in  state  church  granted.  Baptists  and 
Methodists  both  flourishing.  In  Sweden  persecution 
of  the  evangelicals ;  conversion  from  state  church  first 
allowed  1860;  dissenters  granted  full  civil  rights  1870; 
civil  marriage  1879.  Baptists  entered  Sweden  (1848) 
and  now  number  46,000;  Methodists  also  flourish. 
In  Norway  religious  freedom  and  civil  rights  have 
been  granted  all  dissenters,  though  state  church  is 
more  intact  there  than  elsewhere.  Catholics  have  re- 
entered  all  three  countries  and  are  making  some 
progress. 

9.  SCOTLAND.  (References:  N.  ii.  609-14;  K.  Sec. 
202 :6-8 ;  H.  ii.  868-70)  At  beginning  of  period  the 
Scotch  were  in  low  religious  condition ;  early  in  cen- 
tury evangelical  revival  led  by  Haldanes ;  Thos.  Chal- 
mers (1780-1847)  from  1810  onward;  reviving  inter- 
est roused  desire  for  more  freedom  from  state ;  the 
act  of  the  General  Assembly  (1834)  granting  congre- 
gations right  to  veto  candidate  presented  by  patron 
(lay  patronage  abolished  by  Reformation  but  restored 
1712)  was  nullified  by  civil  courts;  this  led  1843  to 
formation  of  "Free  Church  of  Scotland"  (470  minis- 
ters, most  evangelical  laymen,  all  missionaries  went 
out,  leaving  all  property  at  home  and  abroad  with 
state  church)  ;  built  "Free  Church"  colleges  (theolo- 
gical seminaries)  at  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Aberdeen; 
evangelical  and  active  at  home  and  abroad;  reaction 
on  state  church  beneficial;  union  of  "Secession"  and 
"Relief"  churches  into  "United  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Scotland"  1847;  active  in  evangelistic  and  mission- 
ary work.  "United  Presbyterian"  and  "Free  Church" 
united  (1900)  to  form  "United  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land;" property  jeopardized  by  "Wee  Frees;"  final 
settlement. 


230  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

Rationalism  had  affected  Scotch  but  little,  Calvin- 
ism remaining  intact.  Growing  liberalism  in  recent 
years.  W.  Robertson  Smith  deposed  from  Aberdeen 
1881 ;  Henry  Drummond,  Geo.  Adam  Smith.  Many 
learned  and  gifted  men  in  all  churches;  all  churches 
actively  engaged  in  mission  work;  independent  socie- 
ties as  early  as  1796 ;  state  church  began  mission  work 
1829  (Alex.  Duff  first  missionary)  ;  "Free  Church" 
began  work  1843. 

Catholics,  Anglicans,  Baptists,  Calvinistic  Metho- 
dists have  small  bodies  in  Scotland. 

10.  ENGLAND.  Many  reforms  in  government; 
vast  colonial  power  developed;  mistress  of  the  seas. 
Religious  conditions  rapidly  improving  at  beginning 
of  period ;  great  activity  and  power  among  all  denomi- 
nations throughout  the  period;  not  greatly  affected 
by  rationalism  and  criticism;  growing  freedom  and 
equality  of  all  religious  beliefs ;  many  great  modern 
movements  started  in  England  in  this  period :  ( 1 ) 
Founding  modern  Sunday-school  at  Gloucester  by 
Robt.  Raikes,  Anglican,  1780;  (2)  beginning  of  Prot- 
estant missions  among  English  speaking  peoples  by 
Baptists  1792;  (3)  founding  Religious  Tract  Society, 
Anglican,  1799;  (4)  founding  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  London,  1804;  (5)  Founding  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  by  Geo.  Williams,  Angli- 
can, at  London,  1840;  (6)  founding  Salvation  Army 
at  London  by  Wm.  Booth,  Methodist,  1861 ;  (7)  Eng- 
lish prohibited  slave  trade  1824,  abolished  slaves  in 
English  domain  1833 ;  affected  slavery  throughout  the 
world. 

(1)  State  Church.  (References:  N.  ii.  647-58; 
K.  Sec.  202:1-5;  H.  ii.  835-43,  856-63.)  A  strong 


of  Church  History.  231 

evangelical  party  in  Anglican  Church  at  beginning 
of  period;  John  Newton,  d.  1807,  Wm.  Cowper, 
Thos.  Scott,  Jno.  Venn,  Wm.  Wilber force,  Han- 
nah More,  d.  1833  ,and  others ;  these  constituted  "Low 
Church  Party,"  and  have  gradually  declined  with  time. 
"Broad  Church  Party"  favored  German  methods,  re- 
sults and  spirit,  demanding  utmost  freedom  in  doc- 
trine and  teaching;  most  prominent  were  Sidney 
Smith,  S.  T.  Coleridge,  Thos.  Arnold,  d.  1842,  Chas. 
Kingsley,  F.  D.  Maurice,  F.  W.  Robertson,  Milman, 
Farrar  and  others ;  favored  liberalism  in  politics  and 
religion  and  seem  to  have  grown  with  time.  "High 
Church  Party,"  ritualistic,  romanizing,  insisting  on 
episcopal  succession,  became  powerful  with  the  Trac- 
tarian  (Oxford)  movement  1833  onward,  have  con- 
tinued to  grow  in  aggressiveness  and  power  to  present. 
Tractarian  movement  led  by  Keble,  Pusey  (hence 
called  Puseyites),  J.  H.  Newman;  Newman  joined 
Catholics  1845  and  was  followed  by  many  others,  pro- 
fessors, clergymen  and  laymen. 

Controversies  among  the  parties  frequent  and  bit- 
terly fought  in  the  press  and  the  civil  courts.  By  the 
Gorham  case  1847  onward  the  courts  decided  Low 
Churchmen  had  place  in  the  English  Church;  by  con- 
troversies over  Hampden,  "The  Essays  and  Reviews" 
1860,  Bishop  Colenso  1863,  it  was  decided  that  Broad 
Churchmen  have  place  in  Anglican  Church ;  whatever 
does  not  conflict  with  plain  meaning  of  XXXIX  Ar- 
ticles and  Prayer  Book  is  tolerated,  but  High  Church 
party  is  most  active  and  aggressive. 

Anglicans  have  done  active  mission  work  at  home 
and  abroad.  "London  Missionary  Society,"  interde- 
nominational (Independents,  Presbyterians,  Metho- 


232  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

dists,  Anglicans),  founded  1795;  "Church  Missionary 
Society"  1797,  the  missionary  organ  of  the  evangeli- 
cal Anglicans;  "Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel"  revived  and  directed  to  foreign  as  well  as 
colonial  missions,  the  organ  of  High  Church  Party; 
other  missionary  societies,  chiefly  High  Church. 

(2)  Dissenters.  (References:  H.  ii.  844-52.)  Have 
been  gradually  granted  more  freedom ;  right  of  found- 
ing schools  granted  1798;  Corporation  and  Test  Acts 
annulled  (1826),  giving  Protestant  dissenters  right  to 
hold  civil  office ;  universities  opened  to  all  except  theo- 
logical students  1854,  and  to  all  1871 ;  compulsory 
church  rates  abolished  1868. 

a.  Presbyterian    Church    of    England    reorganized 
1876;  new  doctrinal  statement  1889. 

b.  Congregationalists     have     flourished;     missions 
(London  MS.  1795),  Sunday-schools,  education,  char- 
ities, "Congregational  Union  of  England  and  Wales" 
1832 ;  Declaration  of  Faith  and  Principles  1833 ;  many 
able  men,  Jno.  Stoughton,  R.  W.  Dale,  R.  A.  Vaughn, 
A.   M.   Fairbbairn ;  now  have  nearly  4,000  churches 
and  400,000  members. 

c.  Baptists  have  flourished ;  organized  "Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Society"  October  2,  1792;  Sunday-schools  as 
early  as  1800;  Jno.  Ryland,  Andrew  Fuller,  d.  1815, 
Wm.  Carey,  Robt.  Hall,  d.   1831,  eloquent  preacher 
led  toward  open  communion;  many  churches  practice 
open  communion  and  open  membership ;  Baptist  Union 
formed    1812,    strengthened    1832;    General    Baptists 
preserved   their   own   societies   and   schools   till    1891 
when  there  was  complete  union;  Chas.  Spurgeon,  d. 
1891,  Alex.  Maclaren;  have  eight  small  colleges  (theo- 
logical schools),  500,000  members,  successful  foreign 
work.     Welch   Baptists   stricter. 


of  Church  History.  233 

d.  Quakers.     Have  declined.     Now  weak. 

e.  Methodists.       (References:      (H.     ii.     828-34.) 
Severed  all  connection  with  state  church  on  death  of 
Wesley  1791,  and  became  known  as  Wesleyan  Metho- 
dist Church;  have  grown  in  numbers,  divided,  had 
few  great  men,  laid  little  emphasis  on  education,  en- 
tered  foreign   mission   work   late.     "Methodist   New 
Connection"    formed    1797    over    lay    representation, 
"Primitive  Methodist  Church"  1810  over  revival  meth- 
ods; dispute  over  organ  led  to  formation  of  "Wes- 
leyan Protestant  Methodist  Church"  1828 ;  "Wesleyan 
Methodist  Association"  founded  1835 ;  another  schism 
from  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Church  (1849)  united 
(1857)     with    the    "Protestant"    and    "Association" 
Methodists  to  form  "Union  Methodist  Free  Church." 
In  1811  Methodists  sent  out  first  foreign  missionary, 
and  1814  "Wesleyan  Missionary  Society"  organized. 

f.  Catholics.      (References:     H.    ii.   853-5.)      Per- 
mitted to  hold  services  1791  onward ;  Catholic  Emanci- 
pation 1829,  admitting  to  civil  office  except  that  of 
regent,  king,  etc.,  reorganization  of  English  hierarchy 
1850;  Tractarian  movement  started  Catholic  revival; 
rapid  growth  to  present. 

11.  IRELAND.  Irish  Parliament  united  with  Eng- 
lish 1801 ;  Catholic  emancipation  (1829)  gave  freedom 
to  Irish  Catholics;  Anglican  Church  disestablished 
1869;  Trinity  College,  Dublin;  Presbyterian  Church 
in  Ulster  prospered,  great  revival  1859;  a  few  Bap- 
tists and  Methodists;  Ireland  passionately  Catholic, 
constant  friction  with  English  government. 

III.     CHRISTIANITY  IN  AMERICA. 

1.  FROM  MEXICO  SOUTHWARD.  (References:  K. 
Sec.  209.)  Spanish  and  Portugese  Catholicism  holds 


234  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

almost  unbroken  sway  except  in  Argentina,  where  is 
considerable  Protestant  immigration;  many  heathen 
natives  in  interior  of  South  America ;  many  European 
and  American  Protestant  missions;  people  ignorant, 
superstitious,  fanatical,  immoral,  lacking  power  of 
self-government. 

2.  BRITISH  POSSESSIONS  IN  NORTH  AMERICA  have 
many  French  Catholics  along  St.  Lawrence ;  elsewhere 
predominantly    Protestant;   Anglicans,   Presbyterians, 
Baptists,    Methodists,   all   well   equipped,   aggressive, 
flourishing;  missions  to  Indians  and  Eskimos. 

3.  UNITED  STATES.      (References:     K.   Sec.  208.) 
( 1 )   Political  History.     At  beginning  of  period  United 
States    extended    from    Atlantic   to    Mississippi    and 
from   Great   Lakes  to   Florida  line;   Louisiana   Pur- 
chase   1803;   Florida   Purchase    1819;   annexation  of 
Texas  1845 ;  Oregon  obtained  1846 ;  cession  of  Mex- 
ican territory  1848;  Gadsden  Purchase  1853;  Hawaii 
1898;    Porto    Rico    and    Philippines     1898.      Popu- 
lation   increased    from    c.    2,000,000    to    80,000,000, 
among  them  c.  10,000,000  Negroes,  emancipated  1863. 
Indians  gradually  dispossessed  and   largely  extermi- 
nated; gathered  in  reservations  for  most  part. 

(2)  General  conditions  and  characteristics  of  re- 
ligious history  (a)  Constitution  forbade  establishment 
of  religion  by  Federal  Government  and  led  to  dis- 
establishment by  state  governments;  Virginia  1802, 
Connecticut  1832,  Massachusetts  1833,  (b)  great  mul- 
tiplicity of  denominations  (c.  150),  transplanted  from 
Europe  and  native  (Mormons,  Disciples,  Christian 
Scientists,  etc.).  (c)  Tremendous  immigration,  alien 
in  religion  and  ideals,  (d)  Constant  shifting  of  pop- 
ulation— westward  and  into  cities.  (e)  Enormous 


of  Church  History.  235 

energies  put  into  subduing  and  developing  material 
conditions  and  resources  of  the  country,  (f)  Quan- 
tities of  money  spent  in  church  building,  etc.  (g) 
Christianity  practical  and  aggressive  rather  than  doc- 
trinal, contemplative  and  reflective,  (h)  Foreign  mis- 
sions 1810  onward  and  home  evangelism  (protracted 
meetings,  camp  meetings,  great  revivals)  have  been 
pushed;  (i)  Many  auxiliary  organizations:  Y.  M.  C. 
A. ;  Y.  W.  C.  A.  (founded  in  New  York  1873) ;  Y.  P. 
S.  C.  E.  1881,  Brotherhood  of  St.  Andrew  1883,  Kings 
Daughters  1886,  Epworth  League  1889,  B.  Y.  P.  U. 
1891,  Y.  M.  I.  and  many  others,  (j)  Great  develop- 
ment of  Sunday-school  and  chautauquas  for  popular 
study  of  the  Bible ;  (k)  efforts  at  reform — temperance, 
"social  evil,"  municipal  reform.  (1)  Growing  em- 
phasis on  theological  education,  all  great  denomina- 
tions have  well  equipped  theological  seminaries  un- 
connected with  universities,  (m)  Much  theological 
literature — in  earlier  years  on  Systematic  Theology; 
more  recently  on  practical  themes,  exegetical  studies, 
church  history,  etc.  (o)  Preaching  has  been  practical, 
pungent,  evangelistic,  hortatory,  (p)  Church  music 
has  been  popularized,  but  debased,  (q)  Religious  press 
— weekly,  monthly,  quarterly — Bible  and  tract  socie- 
ties, highly  developed  and  widely  used,  (r)  Great  de- 
velopment of  educational  facilities  from  kindergarten 
to  universities,  supported  by  states  and  cities,  and  by 
private  beneficence;  a  nation  of  readers;  denomina- 
tional schools  highly  developed. 

(3)  Various  denominations.  Only  a  few  of  the 
more  important  can  be  noted. 

a.  Congregationalists.  (References:  H.  ii.  897-900; 
N.  ii.  677-81;  Walker,  Hist.  Cong.  Chs.  in  U.  S.) 


236  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

Have  been  among  the  foremost  in  literature,  learning, 
philanthropy,  education,  missions,  reforms,  etc. ;  still 
largely  confined  to  New  England  and  its  descendants ; 
growth  prevented  by  Unitarian  defection  and  by  "Plan 
of  Union"  (1801)  with  Presbyterians,  which  sent  most 
of  its  western  emigrants  into  Presbyterian  church; 
now  have  c.  600,000;  well  equipped  with  theological 
seminaries:  Yale  Divinity  School,  1822;  Andover, 
1808,  removed  to  Harvard  1908;  Hartford,  1834;  Chi- 
cago, 1854;  Oberlin,  1835;  Bangor,  1811;  Pacific  The- 
ological seminary,  1869;  organization  has  (1)  local 
associations,  (2)  state  associations,  (3)  National 
Council.  Several  home  mission  societies.  "American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,"  or- 
ganized 1810,  oldest  foreign  mission  society  in  U.  S. 

b.  Out  of  Congregationalists  came  Unitarians  (Al- 
len and  Eddy,  His.  Unitarians  and  Universalists  in  U. 
S.)  1786  onward;  English  Socinianism  transplanted  to 
New  England  by  Hazlitt,  Freeman  and  others,  worked 
quietly  in  the  Congregationalist  body  until  1815,  when 
it  was  found  that  Harvard  University  and  many 
churches  were  thoroughly  Socinian;  courts  gave 
church  property  to  majority;  most  Congregational 
churches  in  and  around  Boston  went  over ;  still  largely 
confined  to  this  region;  little  aggressive  work  in  any 
direction ;  now  c.  70,000 ;  have  produced  many  literary 
men  of  prominence ;  recently  Socinianism  has  degen- 
erated into  simple  humanitarianism,  regarding  Jesus 
as  a  fine  example  to  follow. 

Closely  allied  to  Unitarianism  is  Universalism; 
founded  by  James  Relly  in  London,  c.  1750,  trans- 
planted to  Massachusetts  by  John  Murray,  who  found- 
ed first  church  1779;  congregational  polity;  colleges 
and  seminaries. 


of  Church  History.  237 

c.  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.     (References:    N. 
ii.  659;  H.  ii.  894-6;  Tiffany,  His.  Protestant  Episco- 
pal Church  in  United  States.) 

At  close  of  Revolution,  Anglican  church  greatly  de- 
pressed; Samuel  Seabury,  ordained  by  non-juring 
bishops  of  Scotland,  1784;  Wm.  White  and  Samuel 
Provost  by  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  1787 ;  "Protest- 
ant Episcopal  Church  in  U.  S."  organized  independent 
of  England,  1789 ;  Prayer  Book,  slightly  modified ; 
(1)  Parish,  (2)  Diocese,  (3)  General  Convention, 
composed  of  "House  of  Bishops"  and  "House  of  Cler- 
ical and  Lay  Deputies"  (four  clergymen  and  four  lay- 
men from  each  diocese),  meets  triennially  at  different 
places  under  presidency  of  bishop  longest  consecrated 
(presiding  bishop),  legislates  for  entire  church; 
church  did  not  prosper  till  c.  1810;  High  Church  ten- 
dencies predominant;  great  gain,  chiefly  from  other 
denominations;  almost  confined  to  cities;  "society" 
church,  discipline  lax,  S.  S.  and  missionary  activity  not 
great;  several  colleges  and  theological  seminaries; 
now  has  over  600,000  members. 

"Reformed  Episcopal  Church"  organized  1873  as 
protest  against  baptismal  regeneration,  special  priest- 
hood of  clergy,  sacrifice  of  mass,  etc. 

d.  Presbyterians.     (References :     N.  ii.  618-23 ;  H. 
ii.  900-2 ;  Thompson,  His.  Presby.  Ch.  in  U.  S. ;  Scoul- 
ler,  Foster  and  Johnson,  United,  Cumberland  and  Pres- 
byterian Church,  South.) 

At  close  of  Revolution  Presbyterians  in  favorable 
position ;  have  not  grown  rapidly ;  never  a  popular  de- 
nomination, but  dignified,  of  high  character,  mission- 
ary in  temper,  but  wanting  in  evangelistic  gifts  and 
work ;  highly  educated  ministry ;  General  Assembly  or- 


238  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

ganized  1788,  adopting  Westminster  symbols  slightly 
modified;  revival  of  1801  in  Kentucky  led  to  organiza- 
tion of  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church  1810;  it  is 
Arminian  in  theology,  education  not  required  in  clergy. 
Split  between  old  and  new  school  Presbyterians  1837 ; 
not  geographical  division,  both  parties  being  repre- 
sented both  North  and  South,  both  claiming  title  of 
General  Assembly;  New  School  split  on  slavery  1854, 
Old  School  1861 ;  in  South  the  two  schools  united 
1864  to  form  "Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S."  (S. 
Pres.  Ch.),  and  in  1869  the  two  schools  united  in 
North  to  form  "Presbyterian  Church  in  United  States 
of  America"  (N.  Pres.  Ch.)  ;  both  churches  carry  on 
mission  work  at  home  and  abroad ;  Northern  Church 
has  following  Seminaries;  Princeton  (1812),  Auburn 
(1820),  Western  at  Allegheny,  Pa.  (1827),  Lane 
(1832),  Union  (1836),  McCormick  (1859),  San  Fran- 
cisco (1871)  ;  Southern  Church  has  Union  at  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  and  Columbia  at  Columbia,  S.  C,  theologi- 
cal departments  at  University  of  Texas  and  South- 
western Presbyterian  University,  Clarksville,  Tenn. ; 
Louisville  Seminary  is  controlled  by  the  two  churches. 

Northern  Presbyterian  Church  (1903)  adopted 
some  additional  articles  and  declaratory  statements  to 
Westminster  symbols,  somewhat  softening  Calvinistic 
doctrine  of  election;  united  with  Cumberland  Presby- 
terian Church  1907. 

Many  small  Presbyterian  bodies;  also  German  Re- 
formed, Dutch  Reformed,  etc.  (Vol.  viii,  Amer.  Ch. 
His.  Series),  all  of  which  in  more  or  less  flourishing 
condition,  and  altogether  having  nearly  2,000,000 
members. 

e.  Baptists.  (References:  N.  ii.  696-699;  H.  ii. 
902f ;  Newman,  His.  Bapt.  Chs.  in  U.  S.) 


of  Church  History.  239 

At  beginning  of  period  fewer  than  100,000,  now 
more  than  4,000,000,  white  and  black,  with  perhaps 
seven  or  eight  millions  more  of  Baptist  sentiment;  in- 
crease largely  from  conversions ;  from  immigration 
very  little ;  have  gained  on  population ;  negroes  largely 
Baptist;  more  white  Baptists  in  South  than  in  North; 
one  of  the  great  popular  denominations ;  improvement 
in  educational  facilities,  culture,  wealth,  social  posi- 
tion ;  have  not  contributed  largely  to  literature,  science, 
higher  politics,  art;  contributions  to  religious  litera- 
ture largely  polemical,  theology,  homiletics,  church 
history,  exegetics,  etc. ;  have  been  practical,  active  in 
home  evangelism,  missions,  schools,  Sunday-schools, 
etc. ;  effective  preaching ;  behind  other  denominations 
in  gifts  for  missions. 

Organization  has  been  rapid ;  only  few  district  asso- 
ciations at  beginning  of  period,  engaged  in  local  evan- 
gelization; increasing  interest  in  missions  and  educa- 
tion led  to  larger  organizations;  small  societies  at  be- 
ginning of  century;  conversion  of  Adoniram  Judson 
and  Luther  Rice  from  Congregational  to  Baptist  views 
led  to  organization  of  Missionary  Union,  1814,  at  Phil- 
adelphia; removed  to  Washington  1822,  to  Boston 
1826;  in  1817  it  undertook  Home  Mission  work  (J. 
M.  Peck),  and  1822  education  (Columbia  College, 
Washington)  ;  withdrew  from  educational  and  home 
mission  work  1826;  Home  Mission  Society  founded 
1832;  these  organizations  led  to  formation  of  State 
conventions,  1821  onward;  Baptist  General  Tract  So- 
ciety organized  (1824),  changed  to  American  Baptist 
Publishing  Society  1840.  All  these  organizations 
aroused  fear  and  opposition,  especially  in  South ;  slav- 
ery controversy  led  to  secession  of  Southern  Baptists 


240  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

1845,  and  formation  of  Southern  Baptist  Convention; 
new  plan  of  organization,  one  body  with  boards;  or- 
ganization of  North  American  Convention  1905 ;  Bap- 
tist World  Conference  at  London  1906;  N.  Bapt. 
Conv.,  1908. 

Mission  Work  has  been  pushed  successfully;  many 
Baptists  in  South  especially,  opposed;  due  to  fear  of 
increased  organization,  to  their  type  of  theology,  and 
to  selfishness;  split  1826,  forming  various  parties  of 
"Hardshells,"  "Anti-missionary,"  "Anti-effort," 
"Primitive  Baptists;"  100,000  now,  opposed  to  Sun- 
day-schools, all  societies,  high  Calvinists.  Baptists 
have  numerous  educational  institutions,  an  able  relig- 
ious press  and  well  equipped  seminaries:  Newton 
(1825),  Rochester,  Colgate,  Crozer;  S.  B.  T.  Sem. 
(1859),  S.  W.  Bap.  Sem.  (1907),  K.  C.  Sem.,  Theo. 
Fac.  of  Univ.  Chicago. 

Older  parties  have  persisted  and  new  ones  been 
formed:  Freewill  Baptists,  by  Benj.  Randall  (1779), 
(Arminian,  open  communion). 

f.  Christians  and  Disciples  of  Christ.  (References : 
N.  ii.  699ff.)  Early  in  nineteenth  century,  five  Pres- 
byterian preachers  (B.  W.  Stone)  in  Kentucky  and 
Ohio  founded  a  "Christian"  denomination;  earlier 
O'Kelley,  a  Methodist  in  Virginia,  and  Abner  Jones, 
a  Baptist  in  Vermont,  had  done  likewise;  these  three 
had  united  to  form  the  "Christians"  (Arian  Christol- 
ogy,  immersion,  believer's  baptism,  opposition  to 
creeds,  sectarian  names,  etc.)  ;  now  number  100,000. 

Thos.  Campbell,  a  Seceder  Presbyterian  preacher  of 
Ireland,  settled  in  Pennsylvania  1800 ;  his  son  Alexan- 
der studied  in  University  of  Glasgow,  came  under  in- 
fluence of  Sandeman  and  Haldanes,  and  by  1811  he 


of  Church  History.  241 

and  his  father  left  Presbyterians,  organized  independ- 
ent church  (believer's  immersion,  rejection  of  creeds, 
names,  human  societies,  etc.) ;  1813  their  church 
joined  Redstone  Baptist  Association,  in  1823  the  Ma- 
honing  Association  of  Ohio;  disseminated  their  views 
as  Baptists,  through  Baptist  organizations;  excluded 
by  Baptists  1827;  Alex.  Campbell,  able  speaker,  with 
good  deal  of  learning,  opposed  creeds,  societies,  Sun- 
day-schools, missions ;  taught  baptismal  remission ; 
Holy  Spirit  works  through  Word  only ;  Arminianism ; 
would  unite  Christendom  on  basis  of  Biblical  Chris- 
tianity; called  his  movement  a  "Reformation,"  hence 
known  as  "Reformers ;"  B.  W.  Stone  and  many  of  the 
"Christians"  joined  him,  hence  confusion  as  to  name; 
popularly  known  as  "Campbellites ;"  now  divided  into 
right  and  left  wing;  number  nearly  a  million,  with 
schools,  missions,  etc. 

g.  Methodists.  (References:  N.  ii.  706-9;  H.  iL 
892-4;  Buckley,  His.  Meths.  in  U.  S.;  Alexander,  M. 
E.  Ch.,  South. 

Methodists  at  close  of  Revolution  few  and  weak; 
marvelous  growth  since ;  now  probably  most  numerous 
Protestant  denomination;  Thos.  Coke  ordained  Su- 
perintendent by  Wesley  (1784),  and  Francis  Asbury 
by  Coke  at  Baltimore  (1784),  when  the  societies  took 
name  of  Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  government  at 
first  wholly  in  hands  of  clergy ;  agitation  to  admit  lay- 
men to  church  councils  led  to  formation  of  "Methodist 
Protestant  Church"  1826;  opposition  to  slavery  led  to 
formation  of  "Wesleyan  Methodist  Church"  1843  in 
New  York;  pro-slavery  sentiment  led  to  secession  of 
Southern  societies  and  organization  of  M.  E.  Church 
South,  1845;  in  interest  of  stricter  discipline,  "Free 


242  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

Methodist  Church,"  1860,  in  New  York.  Organiza- 
tion (1)  local  church,  (2)  circuit,  with  presiding 
elder,  (3)  annual  conferences  presided  over  by  bishop, 
(4)  quadrennial  conference,  composed  of  equal  num- 
ber of  clergy  and  laymen;  bishops  have  no  diocese, 
local  preachers  may  remain  three  or  four  years,  and 
are  located  at  annual  conferences ;  all  types  of  Meth- 
odists now  claim  nearly  eight  million  communicants; 
prosecute  education,  missions,  etc. 

h.  Lutherans  (References:  N.  ii.  564-7;  H.  ii. 
903f;  Jacobs,  His.  Evang.  Luth.  Ch.  in  U.  S.)  have 
had  much  strife  and  division,  have  lost  great  num- 
bers to  other  denominations,  and  to  irreligion ;  grown 
only  by  births  and  immigration;  now  over  1,000,000 
of  several  nationalities,  types  of  life,  etc.,  each  with  its 
own  organizations  and  work;  German  and  English 
used  in  services;  many  shades  of  opinion  and  differ- 
ence in  practice. 

i.  Catholics  (References:  0' Gorman,  His.  Rom. 
Cath.  Ch.  in  U.  S.)  were  few  at  beginning  of  period, 
but  they  have  outgrown  any  other  denomination,  claim- 
ing fourteen  millions  of  population;  growth  chiefly 
from  births  and  immigration,  though  some  conver- 
sions, especially  through  marriages;  now  thoroughly 
organized  and  equipped  with  schools  of  all  grades; 
hostile  to  public  schools ;  one  cardinal ;  American  Cath- 
olics have  lost  enormously,  but  are  looked  to  with  hope 
by  the  whole  church ;  in  some  respects,  more  freedom 
here  than  elsewhere. 

j.  Mormons,  or  "The  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Lat- 
ter Day  Saints,"  founded  by  Joseph  Smith,  Jr.  (born 
in  Vermont),  uneducated,  superstitious;  assisted  by 
Sidney  Rigdon,  a  Baptist  preacher;  Smith  claimed  to 


of  Church  History.  243 

have  found,  by  a  vision,  gold  plates  engraved  with 
reformed  Egyptian  characters  which  he  translated  by 
looking  through  a  crystal;  this  "Book  of  Mormon" 
published  1830;  church  founded  April  6,  1830,  in  On- 
tario County,  N.  Y. ;  moved  to  Kirtland,  O.,  1831; 
built  temple,  organized  hierarchy  (twelve  apostles, 
seventy  elders),  introduced  community  of  goods,  po- 
lygamy; mission  to  England  1837;  financial  disaster 
drove  them  to  Jackson  County,  Mo.,  1837;  converts 
poured  in,  friction  developed  almost  into  civil  war ; 
troops  called  in;  moved  to  Nauvoo,  111.,  1839;  fric- 
tion renewed ;  1843  plurality  of  wives  and  eternity  of 
marriage  revealed  to  Smith;  Smith  murdered  in  jail 
at  Carthage,  111.,  1844;  Mormons  began  to  remove  to 
Utah  1845,  intending  to  build  independent  State ;  mur- 
der of  other  settlers  and  travelers ;  friction  with  U.  S. 
Government ;  suspension  of  polygamy  1890. 

k.  Jews  now  form  an  independent  and  important 
element  in  the  financial,  commercial,  political  and  moral 
life  of  many  communities;  large  immigration  from 
Russia. 

1.  Christian  Science,  founded  1875,  by  Mrs.  Mary 
Baker  G.  Eddy ;  "Science  and  Health ;"  denial  of  the 
reality  of  matter,  of  evil,  etc.;  healing;  astounding 
growth;  headquarters  at  Boston. 

IV.    CHRISTIANITY  IN  SOUTH  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA, 
NEW  ZEALAND 

Is  predominantly  English  and  Protestant,  manifest- 
ing the  same  divisions  and  variety  seen  in  United 
States;  Episcopalians,  Baptists,  Methodists,  Presbyte- 
rians are  the  predominant  denominations. 


244  A  Guide  to  the  Study 

V.     GREEK  CHURCH. 
Reference:    K.  Sec.  206,7. 

Numbers  c.  100  million  members,  one-sixth  of  all 
Christians ;  without  any  unified  government,  as  in  case 
of  Roman  Catholics,  being  fourteen  independent  ad- 
ministrative bodies;  ignorance,  superstition,  corrup- 
tion; (a)  Patriarchate  of  Constantinople,  nearly  four 
millions,  nominally  since  1839,  actually  since  1856, 
equal  to  Moslems  before  the  law,  governed  by  patri- 
arch (named  by  the  Porte)  and  a  synod  of  twelve 
bishops  chosen  every  two  years  by  their  colleagues 
and  a  mixed  council  of  four  bishops  and  eight  laymen ; 
(b)  Patriarchate  of  Alexandria,  with  8,000  souls,  un- 
der English  rule ;  (c)  Patriarchate  of  Antioch,  c.  100,- 
000  souls,  patriarch  residing  in  Damascus;  (d)  Pa- 
triarchate of  Jerusalem,  c.  15,000;  (e)  Archbishopric 
of  Cyprus,  c.  200,000;  (f)  Church  of  Greece,  free  since 
1833,  c.  2,000,000;  governed  by  Metropolitan  of 
Athens  and  council  of  four  bishops  changed  annually ; 
(g)  Russian  Orthodox  Church,  c.  85,000,000;  ruled 
independently  of  Constantinople  by  its  own  patriarch 
of  Moscow  since  1589;  patriarchal  government  dis- 
solved by  Peter  the  Great  1700,  and  Holy  Synod, 
established  consisting  of  from  eight  to  eleven  clerical 
members  and  a  lay  representative  of  the  Czar,  pro- 
curator; partly  supported  by  the  state;  conversion 
from  orthodox  church  was  forbidden  till  Easter,  1905, 
when  religious  freedom  was  granted;  about  2,000,000 
Protestants  (chiefly  Lutherans  and  Reformed),  be- 
sides numerous  sects  (Stundists,  Baptists,  etc.)  and 
Roman  Catholics  (Poles) ;  Russians  very  religious, 
but  immoral ;  this  the  most  vigorous  part  of  Eastern 
church,  (h)  Seven  independent  organizations  in  S.  E. 


of  Church  History.  245 

Europe,  Bulgaria,  Roumania,  etc.,  numbering  alto- 
gether several  million  people.  The  orthodox  church 
is  being  extended  eastward  with  the  spread  and  con- 
quest of  the  Russias  over  Siberia  and  whole  of  North 
Asia;  not  otherwise  missionary. 

VI.     MISSIONS. 

All  great  denominations  busy  extending  Christianity 
into  all  parts  of  the  world;  Catholics  active  since  six- 
teenth century;  colonial  missions  by  Dutch  and  Eng- 
lish Protestants  in  seventeenth;  by  Danes,  Germans 
and  by  Moravians  in  first  half  of  eighteenth  century; 
gradually  by  all  Protestants  since  1792,  when  Baptist 
Missionary  Society  was  formed  at  Kettering,  Eng- 
land ;  for  most  part,  by  societies  of  those  interested  in 
missions;  lately  a  few  churches,  as  such;  Protestants 
probably  expend  twenty  million  dollars,  support  12,000 
missionaries  annually,  and  have  four  and  a  half  mil- 
lions of  Christians  on  mission  fields ;  work  is  done 
through  colonial  schemes,  and  by  direct  missionary 
effort ;  all,  except  some  Moslem  countries,  open ;  con- 
stantly increasing  interest  at  home  and  on  the  fields; 
property  has  been  acquired,  schools  established,  Bible 
translated,  spoken  languages  reduced  to  writing,  begin- 
nings of  Christian  literature  laid;  vast  missionary  lit- 
erature at  home ;  instruction  on  history,  principles  and 
present  condition  of  mission  work  in  seminaries  and 
other  institutions  of  learning;  dissemination  of  infor- 
mation by  Sunday-schools,  women's  societies,  favor  of 
governments  and  secular  press,  hundreds  of  agencies 
for  collecting  funds,  vast  fund  of  experience  in  direct- 
ing missions,  protection  of  missionaries  by  Christian 
nations ;  these  things  point  to  the  rapid  progress  of 
Christianity  to  a  final  and  complete  conquest. 


APPENDIX. 

Bishops  of  Borne,  later  called  Popes,  as  given  by  Catholics. 
Peter  was  never  Bishop  anywhere ;  first  few  names 
following  his  wholly  uncertain,  as  well  as  dates  of  many 
others.  (Single  dates  refer  to  year  of  death.) 


St.  Peter,    42-67. 

St.  Linus. 

St.  Anencletus  or  Cletus. 

St.  Clement,   92-101. 

St.  Evaristus. 

St.  Alexander   till    119. 

St.  Sixtus,    127. 

St.   Telesphorus,   139. 

St.  Hyginus,    142. 

St.  Pius,  157. 

St.  Anicetus,   168. 

St.  Soter,  177. 

St.  Eleutherus,    192. 

St.  Victor,    202. 

St.  Zephyrinus,   219. 

St.  Calistus,  223. 

St.  Urban,    230. 

St.  Pontian,   235. 

St.  Antherus,    236. 

St.  Fabian,    250. 
*St.  Cornelius,  252. 

St.   Lucius,   253. 
*St.   Stephen,   257. 
*St.   Sixtus  II,  258. 

St.   Dionysius,   269. 

St.  Felix,    274. 

St.  Eutychian,  283. 

St.   Caius,  296. 

St.  Marcellinus,    304. 

St.  Marcellus,    308-310. 

St.  Eusebius,    310. 

St.  Melchiades,    311-14. 

St.  Sylvester,    335. 

St.  Marcus,  336. 

St.  Julius,   337-52. 

Liberius,    366. 

(Felix  II,    355,   Antipope.) 
*St.   Damasus,    384. 

St.   Siricius,    385-98. 

St.  Anastasius,   402. 

St.  Innocent,   417. 

St.  Zosimus,    418. 

St.   Boniface,    422. 

St.  Celestine,  432. 

St.  Sixtus   III,    440. 
*St.  Leo  I   (the  Great),  461. 

St.  Hilarus,    467. 

St.   Simplicius,  483. 

St.  Felix   III,    492. 

St.  Gelasius,  496. 

St.  Anastasius  II,  497. 

St.   Symmachus,    498-514. 

(Lawrence,  Anti-pope.) 
*St.  Hormisdas,  523. 

St.  John  I,   526. 


247 


St.  Felix  IV,   530. 

St.  Boniface   II,    532. 

St.  John  II,   535. 

St.  Ag-apetus  I,  536. 

St.  Silverius,   540. 

Vig-ilius    (537),    540-55. 

Pelag-ius,  560. 

John  III,  573. 

Benedict,  578. 

Pelag-ius  II,   590. 
*St.   Gregory  I    (the  Great), 
590-604. 

Sabinian,   605. 

Boniface  III,  606. 

St.   Boniface  IV,   607-14. 

St.   Deusdedit,   615-18. 

Boniface  V,    619-25. 

Honorius  I,  638. 

Severinus,    640. 

John   IV,   642. 

Theodore   I,   649. 
*St.  Martin  I,  653. 

St.  Eugene  I,  654-7. 

St.  Vitalian,  672. 

Adeodatus,    676. 

Domnus  I,  678. 

St.   Agatho,    682. 

St.  Leo  II,  683. 

St.  Benedict  II,  685. 

John   V,    686. 

Conon,   678. 

St.  Sergius  I,  701. 

John  VI,   705. 

John  VII,  707. 

Sisinnius,    708. 

Constantino,  715. 
*St.  Gregory  II,  731. 
*St.  Gregory  III,   741. 
*St.  Zachary,  752. 

Stephen     II      (died     before 

consecration). 
*Stephen  III,  757. 

St.   Paul  I,   767. 

Stephen  IV,   772. 
*Hadrian   I,   795. 
*St.   Leo  III,   816. 

Stephen  V,   816. 

St.  Paschal  I,  817-24. 

Eugene  II,   827. 

Valentine,    827. 

Gregory  IV,  827-44. 

Sergius  II,   847. 

St.  Leo  IV,  855. 

(Popess   Joana-fraud.) 

Benedict  III,   855-8. 


248 


A  Guide  to  the  Study 


'St.  Nicholas  I   (the  Great), 
867. 

St.  Hadrian  II,  872. 

John  VIII,   882. 

Marinus   I,   884. 

Hadrian  III,  844-5. 

Stephen  VI,   891. 

Formosus,  896 

Boniface  VI,  896. 

Stephen  VII,  896-7. 

Romanus,  897. 

Theodore  II,  896. 

John  IX,  900. 

Benedict  IV,  903. 

Leo  V,  903. 

Christopher,    903. 

Sergius  III,  904-11. 

Anastasius  III,  913. 

Lando,   913. 

John  X,   914-28. 

Leo  VII,   928. 

Stephen  VIII,  929-31. 

John  XI,  936. 

Leo   VI,    939. 

Stephen  IX,  942. 

Marinus   II,   943-6. 

Agapetus  II,  955. 

John  XII,  956-64. 

(Leo    VIII,    963,    Benedict, 
964,    Antipopes.) 

John  XIII,  965-72. 

Benedict  VI,  974. 

Boniface  VII,  974,  984-5. 

Benedict  VII,  974-83. 

John  XIV,  983. 

John,  XV,   985-96. 

*Gregory     V,      996-9      (Ger- 
man). 

(John  XVI,  997,  Antipope.) 
'Sylvester        II,        999-1003 
(French). 

John  XVII,  1003. 

John  XVIII,   1003-9. 

Sergius  IV,  1012. 

Benedict   VIII,    1024. 

John  XIX,  1033. 

Benedict   IX,   1044. 

Gregory  VI,  1046. 

Clement      II,      1047      (Ger- 
man). 

Damasus,     1048     (23     days, 
German). 

*St.    Leo    IX,    1049-54    (Ger- 
man). 

•"Victor      II,      1055-7      (Ger- 
man). 

Stephen      X,      1058       (Ger- 
man). 

'Nicholas     II,      1061      (Ger- 
man). 

'Alexander  II,  1073. 
(Honorius    II,    Antipope.) 

*St.   Gregory  VII,    1085. 

Victor  III,  1086-7.' 

'Urban   II,    1088-99. 


'Paschal    II,    1118. 

Gelasius  II,  1118. 

Calixtus   II,   1119-24. 

Honorius    II,    1124-30. 

Innocent  II,  1143. 

Celestine  II,  1143. 

Lucius    II,    1144-5. 
'St.  Eugenius  III,  1153. 

Anastasius   IV,   1153-4. 
'Hadrian  IV,  1159  (English- 
man). 
'Alexander   III,    1181. 

Lucius  III,  1185. 

Urban  III,   1187. 

Gregory  VIII,  1187. 

Clement   III,    1191. 

Celestine  III,  1198. 
'Innocent  III,  1216. 

Honorius  III,  1227. 
'Gregory   IX,    1241. 

Celestine       IV,      1241       (17 
days). 

Innocent  IV,  1243-54. 

Alexander  IV,  1261. 

Urban   IV,   1264. 

Clement    IV,    1268. 

Gregory  X,  1271-6. 

Innocent  V,    1276    (French- 
man). 

Hadrian  V,  1276  (38  days). 

John   XXI,    1276-7    (Portu- 
gese). 

Nicholas  III,  1277-80. 

Martin  IV,  1281-5  (French- 
man). 

Honorius  IV,  1287. 

Nicholas  IV,  1288-92. 

St.    Celestine   V,    1294    (re- 
signed   voluntarily). 

Boniface  VIII,  1303. 

Benedict  XI,  1304. 

Babylonian     Captivity     at 

Avig-non    1305-78. 

Frenchmen. 

Clement  V,  1305-14. 

John  XXII,  1316-34. 

Benedict   XII,   1342. 

Clement  VI,  1352. 

Innocent  VI,   1362. 

St.  Urban  V,  1370. 

Gregory  XI,  1378. 
GREAT    SCHISM   1378-1417. 
At    Rome. 

Urban  VI,  1389. 

Boniface  IX,   1404. 

Innocent  VII,  1406. 

Gregory  XII,   1409-1417. 

Alexander  V,  1409-10. 

John  XXIII,   1415. 
At  Avignon. 

Clement  VII,  1394. 

Benedict    XIII,    1409-1417. 

'Martin  V,   1417-31. 
Eugene    IV,    1447. 


of  Church  History. 


249 


(Felix  V,  Antipope  1439-48, 
the   last   Antipope.) 

Nicholas  V,   1448-55. 

Calixtus    III,    1458     (Span- 
iard). 

Pius  II,  1464. 

Paul  II,  1471. 

Sixtus  IV,   1484. 

Innocent  VIII,  1492. 

Alexander  VI,   1503    (Span- 
iard). 

Pius   III,    1503. 

Julius    II,    1513. 
*Leo  X,  1521. 

Hadrian  VI,  1522-3  (Dutch- 
man). 

Clement  VII,   1534. 

Paul  III,  1549. 

Julius  JII,    1550-5. 

Marcellus  II   (21  days). 

Paul  IV,   1555-9. 

Pius   IV,    1559-65. 

St.  Pius  V,  1566-72. 
"•Gregory   XIII.    1585. 

Sixtus  V,  1590. 

Urban  VII   (13  days). 

Gregory  XIV   (10  months). 

Innocent       IX,       1591        (2 
months). 

ECUMENICAL 
Acknowledged   by   both   Ro- 
man and  Greek  Catholic 
Churches 

Nicea,  325. 
Constantinople,   381. 
Ephesus,   431. 
Chalcedon,    451. 

II.  Constantinople,  553. 

III.  Constantinople,  680. 
II.  Nicea,  787. 

Acknowledged      by      Roman 
Catholic  Church,  only. 

IV.  Constantinople,   869. 
Lateran,  1123. 

II.  Lateran,  1139. 

III.  Lateran,   1179. 

IV.  Lateran,    1215. 


Clement  VIII,   1592-1605. 

Leo  XI    (21  days). 

Paul  V,   1605-21. 
*  Gregory  XV,   1623. 

Urban  VIII,   1644. 

Innocent  X,  1655. 

Alexander  VII,  1667. 

Clement  IX,  1669. 

Clement  X,  1670-6. 

Innocent  XI,   1689. 

Alexander    VIII,    1691. 

Innocent  XII,  1700. 
*Clement  XI,   1721. 

Innocent  XIII,  1724. 

Benedict  XIII,   1730. 

Clement  XII,   1740. 
*Benedict  XIV,  1758. 

Clement  XIII,  1769. 

Clement  XIV,   1774. 
*Pius  VI,   1775-99. 
*Pius  VII,  1800-23. 

Leo  XII,  1829. 

Pius  VIII,   1830. 

Gregory   XVI,   1831-46. 
*Pius  IX,   1878. 

Leo  XIII,   1903. 

Pius  X,   1903—. 


COUNCILS. 

Lyons,   1245. 
II.  Lyons,    1274. 
Vienne,    1311-12.  ' 
Pisa    (?),    1409. 
Constance,  1414-18. 
Florence,  1439. 
V.  Lateran,  1512-17. 
Trent,     1545-63. 
Vatican,  1869-70. 

OTHER  IMPORTANT 

COUNCILS. 
Elvira,    305. 
Aries,  314. 
Ancyra,  314. 
Sardica,  343. 
Constantinople,   692. 
Basel,  1431. 


EMPERORS    OP    THE 

*Augustus,    31    B.    C.    to    14 
A.    D. 

Tiberias,    14-37. 

Caligula,    37-41. 

Claudius,  41-54. 
*Nero,    54-68. 

Galba,   68-9. 

Otho,    69. 


Flavian    Emperor*. 

"•Vespasian,  69-79. 
*Titus,  79-81. 
*Domitian,    81-96. 


ROMAN     EMPIRE. 

Five  Good  Emperors. 

Nerva,  96-8. 
*Trajan,  98-117. 
"•Hadrian,    117-38. 
"•Antoninus  Pius,  138-61. 
*Marcus  Aurelius,   161-80. 

Commodus,   180-92. 

Pertinax,  193. 
"•Septimius  Severus,  193-211. 

Caracalla,  211-17. 

Macrinus,    217-8. 

Heliogabalus,   218-22. 
"•Alexander   Severus,    222-35. 

Maximinus  Thrax,   235-8. 


250 


A  Guide  to  the  Study 


Gordian     1 1  237-8. 
Gordian  II  J 
Gordian  III,  238-44. 
Philip  the  Arabian,  244-9. 
*Decius,   249-51. 
Gallus,   251-3. 
(Valusian.) 
Valerian,   253-60. 
Gallienus,    260-8. 
Claudius  II,  268-70. 
*Aurelian,    270-5. 
Tacitus,  275-6. 
Probus,  276-82. 
Carus,    282-4. 
*Diocletian,    284-305. 
EMPIRE   DIVIDED  286-323. 
Maximian      Co-Emp.,      286- 

305. 

*Constantius  Chlorus,  305-6. 
*Constantine    I,    the    Great, 

306-37. 

Maxentius,    306-12. 
Galerius,    305-11. 
*Licinius,   306-23. 
Constantino       Sole       Ruler 

323-37. 
Empire  Divided  Among1  His 

Sons. 

Constantine  II,   337-40. 
Constans,    337-50. 
*Constantius,    337-61. 
EMPIRE    REUNITED,    350. 
*Julian,  the  Apostate,  361-3. 

Jovian,   363-4. 

EMPIRE  AGAIN  DIVIDED, 
364-94. 
West. 

Valentinian   I,   364-75. 
Gratian,    375-83. 
Clemens  Maximus,   383-8. 
Valentinian   II,    383-392. 
Argobast,   382-4. 
East. 

Valens,  364-78. 
*Theodosius,  379-92. 
EMPIRE     REUNITED,     394. 

Theodosius  alone,   394-5. 
EMPIRE  AGAIN  DIVIDED, 
395-476. 

West. 

Honorius,    395-423. 
Valentinian  III,  425-55. 
Rome    sacked,    410,    by    W. 
Goths    and    455    by    Van- 
dals. 

Confusion  to  476  when 
Romulus  Augustulus 
was  deposed  by  Odoacer, 
who  rules  as  patrician. 

East. 

Arcadius,   395-408. 
Theodosius    II,    408-50. 
Marcian,  450-7. 
Leo    I,    457-74. 
Zeno,  474-91. 


EMPIRE  HENCEFORTH 
CALLED  EAST  ROMAN, 
BYZANTINE  OR 

GREEK   EMPIRE. 

Anastasius  I,   491-518. 

Justin  I,  518-27. 
"Justinian  I,  527-65. 

Justin  II,  565-78. 

Tiberius  II,  578-82. 

Maurice — 602. 

Phocas — 610. 
Heraclian  Dynasty,  610-717. 

Heraclius    I — 641. 

Constantine  III,   641. 

Heracleonas,  641. 

Constans,  641-68. 

Constantine  IV  (Pogona- 
tus),  668-85. 

Justinian    II — 695. 

Leontius — 697. 

Tiberius    III— 705. 

Justinian  II,  again  Emper- 
or, 705-11. 

Philippicus    Bardanes — 713. 

Anastasius  II,   713-16. 

Theodosius  III,   716-7. 
Syrian    (Isaurian)    Dynasty, 
717-820. 

Leo  III  (the  Isaurian), 
717-41. 

Constantine  V  (Coprony- 
mus),  741-75. 

Leo  IV,  775-80. 

Constantine  VI — 797. 
*Empress   Irene,   797-802. 

Nicephorus    I,    802-11. 

Stauracius,  811. 

Michael  I,  811-13. 

Leo  V,  the  Armenian — 820. 

Amorian   Dynasty,   820-67. 

Michael  II  (Stammerer) — 
829. 

Theophilus,   829-42. 

Michael  III  (the  Drunk- 
ard)— 867. 

Basilian   or   Armenian    (Ma- 
cedonian)   Dynasty, 
867-1O57. 

Basil  I  (the  Macedonian), 
867-86. 

Leo  VI  (the  Wise),  886-912. 

Constantine  VII,  Porphy- 
rogenitus — 959. 

(Alexander,  associate  em- 
peror, 912-13. 

Romanus  I,  together  with 
his  three  sons,  associate 
emperors,  919-44.) 

Romanus  II,   959-63. 

Basil  II  (Bulgaroctonus)  — 
1025. 

(Nicephorus  II  and  Phocas, 
associate  emperors  963-9. 

John  I  (Zimisces),  associ- 
ate emperor  969-76.) 


of  Church  History 


251 


Constantine  VIII,  1025-8. 
Romanus     III      (Argyrus), 

1028-34. 
Michael  IV   (the  Paphlago- 

nian)— 1041. 
Michael  V,  1041,  2. 
Constantine    IX    (Monoma- 

chus)— 1055. 
Theodora — 1056. 
Michael    VI     (Stratioticus) 

— 1057. 

Isaac  I  (Comnenus),  1057-9. 
Constantine    X     (Ducas) — 

1067. 

Eudocia  (in  name  of  her 
sons,  Michael  VII,  An- 
dronicus  and  Constan- 
tine, and  her  second 
husband,  Romanus  IV), 
1067-71. 
Michael  VII  (see  above), 

1071-8. 

Nicephorus      III      (Botani- 
ates),   1078-81. 
Comnenian  Dynasty, 

1081-1185. 
Alexius    (Comnenus),   1081- 

1118. 

John    II  (Comnenus) — 1143. 
Manuel      I      (Comnenus) — 

1180. 
Alexus     II      (Comnenus) — 

1183. 
Andronicus    I     (Comnenus) 

—1185. 

Angrelian  Dynasty,  1185-1204. 
Isaac    II    (Angelus),    1185- 
95. 

PRANKISH 
Merovingians,  428-752. 
Franks    overran    Gaul,    400 

onward. 
Clodion,    428. 
Merovic,  448. 
Childeric  I,  481. 
Clovis,    481-511. 
Kingdom      divided      among 
his  four  sons,   Theodoric 
at    Metz,     Chlodomer    at 
Orleans,     Childebert,      at 
Paris     and     Clotaire     at 
Soissons. 

Clotaire  sole  ruler  558-61. 
Divided  among  his  sons 
into  four,  later  (567) 
three  parts,  Austrasia, 
Neustria,  and  Burgundy. 
Frightful  anarchy  and 
civil  wars  till  613  when 
it  was  reunited  under 
Clotaire  II,  613-28. 
Dagobert,  628-38.  Kings 
growing  weaker;  three 
parts  ruled  by  mayors  of 
the  palace;  687  Pepin  of 


Alexius       III       (Angelus), 
1195-1203. 

Isaac  II   (Restored),  1203. 

Alexius       IV       (Restored), 
1204. 

Alexius  V   (Ducas),  1204. 
Latin    Emperors,    1204-1261. 

Baldwin   I,    1204-6. 

Henry  of  Flanders,  1206-16. 

Peter    of    Courtenay — 1219. 

Yolande,  1219-21. 

Robert,  1221-8. 

John  of  Brienne,  1229-37. 

Baldwin    II — 1261. 

Xicean  Emperors,  1206-60. 

Theodore  I  (Lascaris), 
1206-22. 

John   III    (Ducas) — 1254. 

Theodore   II  (Ducas) — 1258. 

John    IV    (Ducas) — 1260. 
Faleologl,    1261-1453. 

Michael  VIII  (Paleologus), 
1261-82. 

Andronicus  II  (Paleolo- 
gus)— 1328. 

Andronicus  III  (Paleolo- 
gus)—1341. 

John  V  (Paleologus) — 1394. 
(John     VI,     Co-emperor, 
1341-54.) 

Manuel      II      (Paleologus), 

1391-1425. 

(John      VII,      Co-emperor, 
1398-1402.) 

John  VIII,  1425-48. 

Constantine  XI,  1448-53. 

Fall  of  Constantinople  and 

end  of  Empire,  1453. 
EMPIRE. 

Heristal,  mayor  of  Aus- 
trasia, overthrew  other 
two  mayors  (Testry)  and 
ruled  over  whole.  His 
grandson,  Pepin,  deposed 
Childeric  III  742-52  and 
became  king. 

Carloviagian  Dynasty,  752- 

Pepin,   the  Short,    752-68. 
Carloman,   768-71. 
Charlemagne,   768-71,   alone 
to   800. 

Revival  of  West  Roman 
Empire  by  Charlemagne, 
called  German  Roman 
Empire,  Holy  Roman 
Empire  of  the  German 
Nation. 

Charlemagne  Emperor,  800- 
14. 

Louis,  the  Pious,  814-40. 

Empire  divided  into  three 
parts  by  treaty  of  Ver- 
dun, 843. 


252 


A  Guide  to  the  Study 


Eastern  ruled  by  Louis,  the 
German,  840-76. 

Central  portion  with  impe- 
rial title  by  Lothair,  840- 
55. 

Western  portion  by  Charles 
the  Bald,  840-77. 

Middle  portion  divided  be- 
tween Eastern  and  West- 
ern portions,  870,  the  im- 
perial title  going  with 
the  Eastern. 

Charles  the  Fat,  876-87. 

Arnulf,  887-99. 

Louis,  the  Child,  899-911. 

Conrad     I,     of     Franconia, 
911-18. 
Saxon  House,  918-1024. 

Henry  I,  the  Fowler,  918- 
36. 

Otto  I,  the  Great,  936-73. 

Holy  Roman  Empire  of  the 
German  Nation,  estab- 
lished 962. 

Otto   II,   973-83. 

Otto  III,  983-1002. 

Henry  II,  the  Saint,  1002- 
24. 

House    of    Franconia, 
1024-1125. 

Conrad  II,   1024-39. 

Henry  III,  1039-56. 

Henry  IV,  1056-1106. 

Henry  V,  1106-25. 

Lothair  of  Saxony,  1125-37. 

House  of   the  Hohen- 

staufen,    1138-1254. 

Conrad  III,  1138-52. 

Frederick  I,  Barbarossa, 
1152-90. 

Henry  VI,  1190-7. 

Philip  of  Swabia,  1198-1208. 

Otto  IV,  of  Brunswick, 
1198-1215. 

Frederick  II,  1212  (1215)- 
1250. 

Conrad  IV,   1250-4. 

William  of  Holland,  1247- 
56. 

Disorder,  rival  claimants, 
interregnum,  1256-73. 


King's    and    Emperors    from 
various  houses,  1273-1438. 

Rudolph  I,  of  Hapsburg, 
1273-91. 

Adolph  of  Nassau,  1292-8. 

Albert  I,  of  Austria,  1298- 
1308. 

Henry  VII,  of  Luxemburg, 
1308-13. 

Frederick  of  Austria,  1314- 
30. 

Louis   of   Bavaria,    1314-47. 

Charles  IV,  of  Luxemburg- 
Bohemia,  1347-78. 

Wenceslas  (his  son),  1378- 
1400. 

Ruprecht  of  the  Palatinate, 
1400-10. 

Sigismund        (brother        of 

Wenceslas),    1410-37. 

House  of  Hapsburg,   or 

Austria,    1438-. 

Albert  II,   1438-9. 

Frederick  III,   1440-93. 

Maximilian   I,    1493-1519. 

Charles  V,  1519-56. 

Ferdinand  I,  1556-64. 

Maximilian    II,    1564-76. 

Rudolph  II,  1576-1612. 

Matthias,  1612-19. 

Ferdinand  II,  1619-37. 

Ferdinand  III,  1637-57. 

Leopold  I  (son  of  Ferdi- 
nand III),  1658-1705. 

Joseph  I  (son  of  Leopold 
I),  1705-11. 

Charles  VI,  1711-40. 

Maria  Theresa,  1740-80. 

Joseph  II,  1765   (1780)-90. 

Leopold  II,  1790-2. 

Francis  II,   1792-1806. 

End  of  Holy  Roman  Em- 
pire, succeeded  by  Aus- 
trian Empire,  of  which 
Francis  II  becomes  Fran- 
cis I,  1806-35. 

Ferdinand  I,  1835-48. 

Francis   Joseph,    1848-. 


FRENCH    KING-S. 


France  under  the  Romans 
from  time  of  Caesar  to 
5th  century  A.  D.  Then 
subdued  by  the  Franks, 
under  Merovingian  kings, 
496-752;  then  under  Car- 
lovingians  to  division  of 
Empire  by  Treaty  of 
Verdun,  843;  then  as  sep 
arate  kingdom  under 
Carlovinffians,  843-987. 


Charles  the  Bald,  840-77. 
Louis  II   (the  Stammerer), 

877-9. 

Louis  III,  877-82. 
Carloman,  877-84. 
Charles  II  (the  Fat),  884- 

deposed  887. 
Eudes,  887-98. 
Charles  III  (the  Simple), 

887-922. 
Robert,   922-3. 


of  Church  History. 


253 


Raous,   923-36. 

Louis  IV,  d'Outre-Mer,  936- 

54. 

Lothaire,   954-86. 
Louis  V,  986-7. 

Capetiau  Line,  987-1328. 
Hugh  Capet,  987-96. 
Robert      II       (the      Saint), 

996-1031. 

Henry  I,  1031-60. 
Philip  I,  1060-1108. 
Louis   VI    (the   Fat),    1108- 

Loui's  VII  (the  Lion),  1137- 

80. 
Philip   II,    Augustus,    1180- 

1223. 

Louis  VIII,  1223-6. 
Louis     IX     (Saint     Louis), 

1226-70. 

Philip  III,   1270-85. 
Philip  IV  (the  Fair),  1285- 

1314. 

Louis  X,   1314-16. 
Philip  V   (the  Long),  1316- 

22. 
Charles      IV      (the      Fair), 

1322-8. 

House   Of    Valois,    1328-1498. 
Philip  VI,   1328-50. 
John   II    (the   Good),    1350- 

64. 
Charles      V      (the      Wise), 

1364-80. 
Charles  VI,  1380-1422. 

KINGS 

Italy  under  the  Roman  Em- 
perors to  476,  after 
which  it  was  not  again 
united  under  one  govern- 
ment till  1870.  Under 
Odoacer  as  Patrician  till 
overthrown  in  493  by 

The   Ostrogoths,   493-552. 

Theodoric,  493-526. 

Athalaric,   526-34. 

Theodat,  534-6. 

Vitiges,  536-40. 

Hildebald,  540-1. 

Eraric,  541. 

Totila,    541-52. 

Teias,  552. 

Principal  Lombard  King's, 


Alboin,    568-73. 
Cleph,   573. 
Interregnum. 
Utharis,   584-91. 
Agilulph,   591-636. 
Rotharis,   636-62. 
Pertharit,  662-. 
Grimoald,    661-71. 
Pertharit,    Again,    671-712. 
Ausprand,  712. 


Charles    VII    (the    Victori- 
ous),  1422-61. 
Louis  XI,  1461-83. 
Charles    VIII,    1483-98. 
Houses  of  Orleans  and  An- 

groulexne,  1498-1589. 
Louis  XII,  1498-1515. 
Francis  I,  1515-47. 
Henry  II,  1547-59. 
Francis  II,  1559-60. 
Charles  IX,  1560-74. 
Henry  III,  1574-89. 
House  of   Bourbon, 

1589-1793. 

Henry  IV,  1589-1610. 
Louis   XIII,    1610-43. 
Louis  XIV,   1643-1715. 
Louis  XV,   1715-74. 
Louis  XVI,   1774-93. 

Republic,  1793-1804. 

(Revolution   and   Directory 
to  1799;  Consulate  1804.) 

First   Empire   under  Napo- 
leon, 1804-14. 

Kingdom   restored  by  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  1814. 

Louis  XVIII,    1814-24. 

Charles  X,  1824-30. 

Louis   Philippe,   1830-48. 

Second  Republic,  1848-52. 

Second    Empire    under    Na- 
poleon III,  1852-70. 
Third  Republic,   1870  to 
Present. 


OF   ITALY. 

Luitprand,    712-44. 

Ratchis,   744-9. 

Astolph,   749-56. 

Didier,  Duke  of  Istria,  756-. 

The  Prankish  Carlovinglans, 

774-888. 

Charlemagne,   774-814. 

Louis  the  Pious,  814-40. 

Lothaire,   840-55. 

Louis  II,  855-75. 

Charles  the  Bald,  875-7. 

Carloman   of  Bavaria,    877- 
80. 

Charles  the  Fat,  880-8. 
King's  of  the  Feudal  Period, 
888-951. 

Guy,  Duke  of  Spoleto,  888. 

Berenger,    Duke    of   Frioul, 
888-91. 

Lambert,  son  of  Guy,  891-6. 

Arnulf,    king   of    Germany, 
896-9. 

Louis,    king    of    Provence, 
899-921. 

Rudolph,    king  of   Burgun- 
dy, 921-6. 

Hugh,  count  of  Aries,  926- 
47. 


254 


A  Guide  to  the  Study 


Lothair,  his  son,  947-50. 

Berenger  II,  950-1. 

In  951  Otto  I,  king  of  Ger- 
many, assumed  the  title 
king  of  Italy,  and  this  ti- 
tle attached  to  the  crown 
of  Germany  until  the 
downfall  of  the  Empire. 
The  title  was  revived 
again  when  Victor  Em- 
manuel, king  of  Sardinia, 
took  the  title  "King  of 
Italy,"  March  17,  1861. 
KINGS  OF  NAPLES. 
Normans,  1046-1189. 

Robert  Guiscard  arrives  in 
Italy  1046,  and  becomes 
duke  in  1057. 

Roger  becomes  duke  1085. 

William  becomes  duke  1111. 

Roger  I  becomes  count  of 
Sicily  1050. 

Roger  II  becomes  count  of 

Sicily  1101. 

Roger    II    becomes    duke    of 
Sicily  1127. 

Roger  II  becomes  king  of 
the  Sicilies  1130. 

William  I  becomes  king  of 
the  Sicilies  1154. 

William  II  becomes  king  of 
the  Sicilies  1166. 

Germans,  1189-1266. 

(Dates  indicate  time  of 

accession.) 

Henry  I  (VI.  in  Germany), 
1189. 

Frederick  I  (II  in  Germa- 
ny), 1197. 

Conrad,   1250. 

Conradin,   1254. 

Manfred,  1258. 
French  House  of  Anjou, 
1266-1435. 

Given  by  the  pope  to 
Charles  I,  1266. 

Loses  Sicily  (Sicilian  Ves- 
pers), 1282. 

SPANISH 

Spain  was  under  the  Ro- 
mans from  197  B.  C.  till 
its  invasion  by  Germans 
(Vandals,  Suevi,  Alani), 
409  onward;  W.  Goths 
conquer  most  of  Spain, 
526-711,  capital  at  Toledo. 
Moors  (Mohammedans) 
overrun  all  the  peninsula 
except  N.  W.  portion,  711 
onward.  Christians  grad- 
ually build  up  the  king- 
doms of  Leon,  Navarre, 
Castile,  Aragon  and  Por- 


Charles    II,    1285. 

Robert,   1309. 

John  I,  1343. 

Charles  III,   1382. 

Ladislas,    1386. 

John   II,   1411. 

Naples  passes  under  the 
crown  of  Aragon,  1435; 
1458  independent,  1504 
subject  to  Spain;  1714 
passed  under  Austria; 
1738  passed  under  Span- 
ish line  of  the  "House  of 
Bourbon,"  but  was  not 
connected  with  the  Span- 
ish crown.  After  Napo- 
leonic wars,  Naples 
passed  under  control  of 
Austria  till  1860. 

KINGS  OF  SICILY, 
1282-1409. 

(Dates   indicate  time  of 
accession.) 

Peter  (III  in  Aragon), 
1282. 

James,   1285. 

Frederick  I,  1296. 

Peter  II,  1336. 

Louis,  1342. 

Frederick  II,  1355. 

Marie,   1377. 

Martin  I,   1391-1409. 

Martin  II  unites  Sicily  to 
Aragon  in  1409.  By 
Treaty  of  Utrecht,  1713, 
concluding  the  wars  of 
the  Spanish  succession, 
Sicily  passed  under  con- 
trol of  Duke  of  Savoy, 
who  was  compelled,  1718, 
to  exchange  it  for  Sar- 
dinia, and  henceforth 
called  himself  "King  of 
Sardinia."  Sicily  passed 
under  control  of  Austria 
till  1860. 


PENINSULA. 

tugal,  which,  by  degrees, 
win  back  the  territory 
till  1492,  when  the  Mo- 
hammedan government 
was  completely  over- 
thrown. 

Navarre. 

Became  kingdom  858,  re- 
mained independent  till 
1512,  when  it  was  over- 
thrown by  Ferdinand  of 
Aragon,  and  the  larger 
part  incorporated  in  Ara- 
gon, the  northern  portion 


of  Church  History. 


255 


remaining  free  under  a 
French  count  until  final- 
ly incorporated  in 
France. 

Arag-on. 

Became  independent  king- 
dom  1035;  Leon  united 
with  Castile  1230;  Castile 
and  Aragon  were  united 
1479,  after  the  marriage 
of  Ferdinand,  king  of  Ar- 
agon,  and  Isabella,  queen 
of  Castile,  in  1469;  the 
union  was  personal  till 
1516,  when  they  were 
completely  united  into 
the  Kingdom  of  Spain. 
King's  of  Spain. 

Charles  I  (Emperor  Chas. 
V  in  Germany),  1516-56. 

Philip  II,   1556-98. 

Philip  III,   1598-1621. 

Philip   IV,   1621-65. 

Charles  II,  1665-1700. 
Bourbon  Dynasty. 

Philip  V,  1700-46. 

Ferdinand  VI,  1746-59. 

Charles   III,    1759-88. 

Charles  IV,  1788-abdicated 
1808. 

After  the  Napoleonic  wars, 
Ferdinand  VII,  1814-33. 

Isabella  II,  1833-deposed 
1869. 

Amadeus  I  (son  of  Victor 
Emanuel),  1870-abdicated 
1873. 

Republic   1873-5. 

Alfonso  XII  (son  of  Isa- 
bella), 1875-85. 

His  widow,  Christina  Re- 
gent, 1885-1902. 

Alfonso  XIII,   1902- 

TKE    HOHENZOLZ.ERN 
Electors  of  Brandenburg*. 

Frederick   I,    1415-40. 
Frederick      II      (the      Iron 

Duke),  1440-70. 
Albert,   Achilles,   1470-86. 
John,  Cicero,  1486-99. 
Joachim    I,    1499-1535. 
Joachim  II,  1535-71. 
John   George,   1571-98. 
Joachim     Frederick,     1598- 

1608. 

John  Sigismund,  1608-19. 
George  William,  1619-40. 
Frederick  William,  the 

Great  Elector,   1640-88. 
Frederick       III,       William, 

1688-1713. 
Takes  the  title  "Frederick 


PORTUGAL. 

The  county  of  Portugal  be- 
came kingdom  in  1139. 

Alfonso  I,   1112-85. 

Sancho  I,  1185-1211. 

Alfonso  II,  1211-23. 

Sancho  II,   1223-48. 

Alphonso  III,   1248-79. 

Dionysius   III,   1279-1325. 

Alphonso  IV,  1325-57. 

Peter  I,  1357-67. 

Ferdinand,  1367-83. 

John  I,  1385-1433. 

Edward,   1433-38. 

Alphonso  V,   1438-81. 

John  II,  1481-95. 

Emanuel  the  Great,  1495- 
1521. 

John  III,  1521-57. 

Sebastian,  1557-78. 

Henry,   1578-80. 

Portugal  a  Spanish  prov- 
ince 1581-1640. 

Houso  of  Brag-anza, 
1640   to   Present. 

John  IV,  1640-56. 

Alfonso   VI,    1656-67. 

Peter  II,  1667-1706. 

John  V,  1706-50. 

Joseph,  1750-77. 

Maria     (and    Peter    III    to 

1786),  1777-1816. 
Prince    John,    regent    since 

1789,     became     John     VI, 

1816-26. 
Maria,   1826-53. 
Peter  V,  1853-61. 
Louis,   1861-89. 
Charles       I,       1889-assassi- 

nated  1908. 

IN  PRUSSIA. 

William  I,  king  of  Prus- 
sia,"   1701. 

Frederick  I,   1713-40. 
Frederick     II,     the     Great, 

1740-86. 
Frederick  William  II,  1786- 

97. 
Frederick       William        III, 

1797-1840. 
Frederick        William        IV, 

1840-61. 
William  I,  the  Great,  1861- 

88. 
Became     Emperor     of     the 

newly      formed      Empire, 

1871. 

Frederick  III,   1888. 
William  II,  1888  to  present. 


256 


A  Guide  to  the  Study 


KINGS   OF 

England  under  Romans  A. 
D.  44  to  449. 

A  n  g  1  o-Saxon  Heptarchy, 
with  confusion  and  vari- 
ous changes  to  827,  when 
the  Heptarchy  was  unit- 
ed under  Egbert  of  Wes- 
sex. 
Anglo-Saxon  King's. 

Egbert,    827-36. 

Ethelwulf — 857. 

Ethelbald— 857. 

Ethelbert,   857-66. 

Ethelred — 871. 

Alfred  the  Great — 901. 

Edward — 925. 

Athelstan— 941. 

Edmond    I — 946. 

Edred— 955. 

Edwy — 957. 

Edgard — 975. 

Edward  II,  the  Martyr — 
978. 

Ethelred   11—1013. 

Danish  Princes. 

Sweyn,    1013. 

Ethelred  II,  again,  1014-16. 

Canute  the  Great,  1015-35. 

Edmund  Ironside,  1015-17. 

Harold  I,  1035-40. 

Hardicanute,  1040-2. 
Anglo-Saxon  King's. 

Edward  the  Confessor, 
1042-66. 

Harold,  son  of  Godwin, 
1066. 

Norman   Kings,   1066-1154. 

William  I,  1066-87. 

William  Rufus,  1087-1100. 

Henry  I,  1100-35. 

Stephen  of  Blois,   1135-54. 

House  of  Anjou,  or  Planta- 

genets,   1154-1399. 

Henry  II,  1154-89. 

KOTOS  OF 

Scotland  never  under  the 
Roman  Empire.  Tribal 
governments  gradually 
transformed  into  petty 
kingdoms,  which  were 
slowly  united  into  one  by 
war  and  marriage.  This 
reached  some  degree  of 
unity  and  power  by  the 
year  1000. 

Malcolm   II,   1005-34. 

Duncan. 

Macbeth. 

Malcolm  III,  Canmore, 
1054-97. 

Edgar,    1097-1107. 

Alexander  I,  1107-24. 

David  I,  1124-53. 


Richard     Coeur     de     Lion, 

1189-99. 

John  (Lackland),  1199-1216 
Henry  III,  1216-72. 
Edward  I,  1272-1307. 
Edward   II,   1307-27. 
Edward  III,  1327-77. 
Richard  II,  1377-99. 
House  of  Lancaster, 

1399-1461. 

Henry  IV,  1399-1413. 
Henry  V,  1413-22. 
Henry  VI,  1422-61. 

House  of  York,  1461-85. 
Edward  IV,  1461-83. 
Edward  V,  1483. 
Richard  III,   1483-5. 
House   of   Tudor,    1485-16O3. 
Henry  VII,  1485-1509. 
Henry  VIII,   1509-47. 
Edward  VI,   1547-53. 
Mary,   1553-8. 
Elizabeth,    1558-1603. 
House  of  the  Stewarts, 

1603-1714. 
James  I,  1603-25. 
Charles   I,   1625-49. 
Commonwealth,  1649-60. 
Charles  II,   1660-85. 
James  II,  1685-8. 
William      III      and      Mary 
1688-1702. 

(Mary  only  to  1694.) 
Anne,  1702-14. 
House   of   Hanover,   1714   to 

Present. 

George  I,  1714-27. 
George  II,  1727-60. 
George  III,  1760-1820. 
George  IV,  1820-30. 
William  IV,  1830-7. 
Victoria,  1837-1900. 
Edward  VII,  1900-. 


SCOTLAND. 

Malcolm    IV,    1153-65. 

William  the  Lion,  1165- 
1214. 

Alexander  II,  1214-49. 

Alexander  III,   1249-89. 

Marguerite,    1289-91. 

John  Balliol,  1291-deposed 
1296. 

Edward  I,  of  England,  ac- 
knowledged king  of  Scot- 
land 1296. 

William   Wallace. 

Robert  Bruce,  1306-29. 

David  II,  1329-deposed 
1332. 

Edward  Balliol,  1332-de- 
posed  1342. 

David  II,   restored  1342-71. 


of  Church  History. 


257 


House  of  the  Stuarts, 
1371-1603. 

Robert  II,  1371-96. 

Robert   III,  1396-1406. 

James  I,  1406-37. 

James  II,  1437-60. 

James  III,  1460-88. 

James  IV,  1488-1513. 

James  V,  1513-42. 

Mary,  1542-66;  represented 
by  regent  to  1560. 

James  VI,  1566-1603,  when 
he  became  king  of  Eng- 
land also,  thus  uniting 
the  two  crowns  and  re- 
moving capital  to  Lon- 
don. Scotch  Parliament 
united  with  the  English 
1707. 

WALES. 

Was  never  subdued  by  Ro- 
mans or  Anglo-Saxons. 
Divided  into  several 
small  states  under  inde- 
pendent princes  until 
1284,  when  it  was  com- 


pletely subjected  to  Eng- 
land; in  1301  the  heir  to 
English  throne  was  giv- 
en title,  "Prince  of 
Wales,"  and  in  1536  the 
country  was  completely 
incorporated  in  England. 

IRELAND. 

Was  not  under  the  Romans 
or  Anglo-Saxons.  Many 
small,  independent 
princes,  constantly  at 
war  with  one  another  un- 
til 1155,  when  it  was 
granted  by  Pope  to 
Henry  II,  of  England, 
with  title  "Lord  of  Ire- 
land." Always  rebellious 
and  never  wholly  sub- 
dued; had  its  own  par- 
liament; 1541  Henry  VIII 
was  recognized  as  "King 
of  Ireland,"  and  1801  the 
Irish  parliament  was 
united  with  the  English. 


THE    UTETHEStliANDS. 


Were  subjected  to  the  Ro- 
man Empire  from  time 
of  Julius  Caesar  onward; 
passed  into  Frankish 
Empire,  then  into  Ger- 
man Empire,  843  onward; 
during  feudalism  many 
semi-independent  states 
of  various  forms  were 
developed;  the  whole 
passed  under  sway  of 
dukes  of  Burgundy  1369 
onward,  and  under  House 
of  Hapsburg  by  marriage 
of  Maximilian  of  Austria 
and  Mary  of  Burgundy, 
1477;  in  1549  they  were 
attached  by  Charles  V  to 
crown  of  Spain;  Spanish 
cruelty  excited  revolt, 
1568;  seven  northern 
provinces  unite  1579 
(Union  of  Utrecht),  and 
1581  declare  their  inde- 
pendence, under  leader- 
ship of  William  of  Or- 
ange (the  Silent),  as 
Stadholder ;  Maurice, 
1584-1625;  Frederick 
Henry,  1625;  after  Wil- 
liam II,  Stadtholdership 


abolished.  Recognized  as 
independent  republic  by 
Treaty  of  Westphalia, 
1648;  Stadtholdership  re- 
vived 1672,  and  William 
III  made  Stadtholder;  be- 
comes King  of  England 
1688-1702;  down  to  Napo- 
leonic wars,  sometimes  a 
Stadtholdership  and 
sometimes  pure  republic. 
Southern  provinces  had 
been  saved  to  Spain  in 
16th  century,  were  trans- 
ferred to  Austria  1713, 
and  by  Congress  of  Vi- 
enna, 1815,  were  united 
with  the  northern  prov- 
inces into  the  Kingdom 
of  the  Netherlands,  un- 
der William  I,  1815-40; 
William  II,  1840-9;  Wil- 
liam III,  1849-90;  Wilhel- 
mina,  1890-. 

Kingdom  of  Belgium  was 
formed  of  revolted  south- 
ern provinces,  1830; 
Prince  Leopold,  of  Saxe- 
Coburg,  was  elected  king 
1831-65;  Leopold  II,  1865. 


RUSSIA. 

Never  under  the  Romans. 
Tribal  government  till 
862,  when  Ruric,  a  Swed- 
ish prince,  laid  founda- 


tion of  the  Empire,  with 
capital  at  Novgorod,  later 
Kiev;  became  Christian 
under  Vladimir  the  Great 


258 


A  Guide  to  the  Study 


(988);  divided  into  many 
principalities  under  suz- 
erainty of  Kiev.  Rus- 
sia under  the  Mongols, 
1241-1480.  During  this 
period  the  principality  of 
Moscow  rose,  and  its 
prince  became  the  foun- 
der of  the  united  Mon- 
archy, 1480. 

Ivan  III,  the  Great,  1462- 
1505. 

Ivanovitch,  1505-33. 

Ivan  IV,   1533-84. 

Feodor  I,  1584-98. 

Boris    Godunow,    1598-1605. 

Demetrius,  1605-6. 

Wasilij  Schwiskoi,  1606-10. 

Whadislaw,    1610-12. 


House  of  the  Romanof s, 
1613  to  Present. 

Michael  F.  Romanov,  1613- 

45. 

Alexius,   1645-76. 
Feodor  II,  1676-82. 
Interregnum,   1682-9. 
Peter    I,    the    Great,    1689- 

1725. 

Catharine  I,  1725-7. 
Peter  II,  1727-30. 
Anna,   1730-40. 
Ivan  VI,  1740-1. 
Elizabeth,  1741-42. 
Peter  III,  1742. 
Catharine  II,  1742-96. 
Paul  I,  1796-1801. 
Alexander  I,   1801-25. 
Nicholas  I,   1825-55. 
Alexander  II,  1855-81. 
Alexander  III,  1881-94. 
Nicholas   II.   1894- 


of  Church  History. 


259 


INDEX 


Abelard,  llOf. 

Abyssinian  Monophysite 

Churches,   76. 

Adoptionist  Controversy,  84. 
Agape,   24. 

Albert  the  Great,  112. 
Albigenses,  117. 
Alfred  the  Great,  90. 
Alien    Baptism    (100-323    A. 

D.),  24. 
Alva,    161. 

America:      To    the    Revolu- 
tion,  210ff;   Revolution  to 

1908,  233ff. 

Anabaptists,    148,    160. 
Anabaptist          Reformation, 

178ff. 

Ancient  Church,  11. 
Anderson,   Lars,   145. 
Anglican  Church    (1689-1789 

A.  D.),   207. 
Anglo-Saxons      (600-850      A. 

D.),    79. 
Anselm,   110. 
Ansgar,  82. 
Antinomian          Controversy, 

144. 

Anti-trinitarian          Anabap- 
tists, 181. 

Antoine  Court,   203. 
Apollinarianism,   57f. 
Apologetics   (100-323  A.  D.), 

18. 

Apostles'   Creed,   30. 
Apostolic   Era,    6. 
Aquinas,    Thomas,   112. 
Archbishops,   21. 
Arianism,   54ff,   206f. 
Armenia  (323-600  A.  D.),  44. 
Armenian  Church,  76. 
Arminianism,   Rise  of,   162f. 
Art     and      Music,      Catholic 

(1517-1648  A.  D.),  189. 
Asceticism    (323-600   A.   D.), 

66. 

Aufklarung,   200. 
Augustine,    the    Missionary, 

79. 

Augustinians,    104. 
Austria:      1648-1789    A.     D., 

194;    and   Eastern    Europe 

(1789-1908),    225. 
Babylonish  Captivity,  124f. 
Baptism:    100-323  A.  D.,  23; 

323-600   A.   D.,   48f. 


Baptists:  174ff;  in  America 
to  Revolution,  212f;  in 
England  (1789-1908),  232; 
in  Germany,  225;  in  Unit- 
ed States  (Revolution  to 
1908),  238ff. 

Barbarossa,  95,  106. 

Becket,   Thomas   a,    100. 

Bede,   87. 

Belgic  Confession,  161. 

Benedictine  Order,  67. 

Belgium   (1789-1908),   228. 

Bernard   of  Clairvaux,   HOf. 

Bible    (100-323   A.   D.),   29f. 

Bohemia  and  Moravia 
(Luth.  Reformation),  148. 

Bohemian  Brethren,  148. 

Bonaventura,   112. 

Boniface,  80f. 

Boniface  VIII,  101. 

British  America,  234. 

"Broad  Church   Party,"   231. 

Brothers  of  the  Common 
Life,  130. 

Browne,  Robert,   173f. 

Calixtines,   134. 

Calixtus,   George,   199. 

Calvin,   John,    155. 

Calvinistic  Churches  (1648- 
1789),  202ff. 

C  a  1  v  i  n  i  stic  Reformation, 
153ff. 

Campbell,   Alexander,    240f. 

Canon  of  Scriptures — Its 
Formation,  29f. 

Cappel  Wars,  153. 

Carthusians,    103. 

Cathari,  117. 

Catholic  Church:  1648-1789, 
193fC;  in  America,  210; 
English  (1789-1908),  233; 
in  United  States  (Revolu- 
tion to  1908),  242. 

Catholic   Reformation,   ISlff. 

Ceremonies  for  Converts 
(100-323  A.  D.),  23. 

Charlemagne,  78. 

Charles  I,  170f. 

Charles  II,  171,  172f. 

Charles  V,  142f,   160. 

Charles  the  Bald,  89. 

Charles  the  Fat,  89. 

Christian  II,   146. 

Christian  Activity:  1-100  A. 
D.  10. 


260 


A  Guide  to  the  Study 


Christian  Life  (100-323  A. 
D.)f  26f;  323-600  A.  D., 
64ff;  600-850  A.  D.,  86f; 
1305-1517  A.  D.,  128ff; 
1517-1648  A.  D.,  139f ;  Cal- 
vinistic  Ref.,  155;  Zwingl. 
Ref.,  151. 

Christian  Literature  (1-100 
A.  D.),  10. 

Christian  Science,  243. 

"Christians,"   240. 

Christological  Controversies, 
56ff. 

mrch:  1-100  A.  D.,  7; 
Architecture,  114;  Inter- 
nal History  of  (850-1050 
A.  D.),  92;  Music,  114; 
Officers  (100-323  A.  D.), 
19f;  323-600  A.  D.,  45;  Or- 
ganization (323-600  A. 
D.),  46;  Polity  (100-323  A. 
D.),  19;  Property  (600- 
850  A.  D.),  83. 

Church  and  State:  Calv. 
Ref.,  154;  1648-1789,  193f; 
in  United  States,  234. 

Church    (Canon)    Law,   83. 

Cistercians,   103. 

"Civil  Constitution  of  the 
Church,"  218f. 

Clement  VII,  125. 

Clugny,  Congregation  of,  93. 

Cocceius,  204. 

Columba,  43. 

Columban,  80. 

Concordat  with  Pius  VII, 
220. 

Confessional,  115. 

Confirmation  (323-600  A. 
D.),  49. 

Congregationalists:  In  Eng- 
land (1789-1908),  232;  in 
America,  211f;  in  United 
States,  235f. 

Conrad   III,   105. 

Constantine,  36f. 

Consulate,    220. 

Controversies  (1537-1592), 
144f. 

Copts,  76. 

Coeur  de  Lion,   106. 

Council  of  Constance,  125. 

Council  of  Trent,  181f. 

Councils   (323-600  A.  D.),47f. 

Courts  and  Canon  Law  (323- 
600  A.  D.),  48. 

Covenanters,    204f. 

Cromwell,    167,    171f. 

Crusades,  105ff. 

Cyril,  the  Monk,  73. 

Danes  massacred,  90. 

Decay  of  Heathenism  and 
Triumph  of  Christianity, 
40ff. 


Denmark:  Luth.  Ref.,  146f; 
1789-1908,  228f. 

Denominations:  In  United 
States,  234,  235f;  Rise  of, 
173ff. 

Deism,    206f. 

Diet  of  Copenhagen,   146. 

Dissenters,  207. 

Discovery,  130,  217. 

Discipline:  100-323  A.  D., 
27f;  323-600  A.  D.,  65. 

Disciples  of  Christ,  240f. 

Directory,  The,   220. 

Division  between  Eastern 
and  Western  Churches. 
72f. 

Doctrines:  1-100  A.  D.,  7; 
Development  of,  29. 

Dominicans,  104,   112,   127. 

Donatism,  34. 

Dutch   Anabaptists,   180f. 

Dutch  "Reformed"  Church- 
es, 204. 

Dynamic  Monarchianism,  31. 

Eastern  Christianity  to  1453 
A.  D.,  71. 

Eastern  Empire,  37f. 

East  Goths,   39f. 

Eckhart,  Meister,  127. 

Edict  of  Nantes,  159. 

Edict  of  Nismes,   159. 

Educational:  100-323  A.  D., 
27;  progress  (1789-1908), 
217. 

Edward  I,  98. 

Edward  VI,  168. 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  212. 

Elizabeth,   169f. 

Empire,  The:  1050-1305  A. 
D.,  94ff;  1305-1517  A.  D., 
120f. 

England:  600-850  A.  D.,  77; 
1050-1305  A.  D.,  97,  101; 
1305-1517  A.  D.,  123;  1689- 
1789  A.  D.,  205ff;  1789- 
1908,  230ff;  850-1050  A.  D., 
90. 

English  Reformation,  166. 

Erasmus,  132. 

Eucharist:  100-323  A.  D.,  24; 
323-600  A.  D.,  49f;  Contro- 
versy, 84. 

Eutychianism,  59f. 

Farel,  William,  155f,  157. 

Fasts    (100-323   A.  D.),   25. 

Federal  Theology,  204. 

Fox,  George,  176f. 

France:  Reformation  of,  156; 
1050-1305  A.  D.,  97;  1305- 
1517  A.  D.,  122;  1648-1789 
A.  D.,  193f;  1789-1908, 
226f. 

Francke,  A.  H.,  199. 

Francis  I,  142f. 


of  Church  History. 


261 


Francis  of  Assisi,  104. 
Franks,  39;  600-850  A.  D.,  77. 
Franciscans,  104,   lllf. 
Frederick  I,  95. 
Frederick  II,  95f,  106. 
Frederick  IV,  20 Of. 
"Free  Church   of   Scotland," 

229. 
French       Catholics       (1789- 

1908),  227. 
French  Empire,  221. 
French     Protestants:      203f; 

1789-1908,   227. 
French    Reaction,    219,    221. 
French    Revolution,    218. 
Frisians,  8 Of. 
General  Baptists,  175. 
Geneva,  Reform  of,  155f. 
German  Anabaptists,  180. 
Germans,  Conversion  of,  42f, 

44f,    80f. 
German      "Reformed" 

Churches,  202f. 
German  Theology,  127. 
German  Tribes,   38ff. 
Germany:     850-1050    A.     D., 

88f;      Luth.      Ref.,      140ff; 

1789-1908,  223ff. 
Gnosticism,   31f. 
Gospel,  The,  1. 
Gregory  VII,  94,  98f. 
Gregory,  Pope,  79. 
Greek  Church,  189f,  244f. 
Guise  family,  158. 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  146,  186. 
Haller,  Berthold,  152. 
Helwys,  175. 

Helvetic  Conferences,  153. 
Henricans,   117. 
Henry  I,  89. 
Henry  II,  98,  100. 
Henry  III,  9 If,  98. 
Henry  IV,  94. 
Henry  VIII,  167f. 
Henry  of  Navarre,  158ff. 
Herbert  of  Cherbury,  206. 
Heresies:      1-100    A.    D.,    8; 

100-323   A.  D.,   31ff. 
Hierarchy:      600-850    A.    D., 

83;   1050-1305  A.  D.,   lOlff. 
"High  Church  Party,"  231. 
Higher    Clergy    (600-850    A. 

D.),  86. 

Hildebrand,  98f. 
Hoffmann,  Melchior,  180. 
Holland  (1789-1908),  228. 
Holliman,  213. 
"Holy       Orthodox       Eastern 

Church,  71. 
Humanism,  126,  131. 
Hungary    and    Transylvania 

(Luth.  Ref.),  148. 
Huns,  39. 

Huss,  John,  125f,  133f. 
Iceland   (Luth.  Ref.),  147. 


Iconoclasm,   74. 

Image  worship,  114. 

Independents,  173f. 

Indulgences,  115. 

Innocent  III,  100,  106. 

Inquisition:  226;  1050-1305 
A.  D.,  118;  1305-1517  A. 
D.,  129;  1541  A.  D.,  184. 

Invention,  130,  217. 

Investiture,  94f. 

Isidore,  87. 

Italy:  1050-1305  A.  D.,  96; 
1305-1517  A.  D.,  122;  Luth. 
Ref.,  149f;  1789-1908  225f. 

Ireland:  323-600  A.  D.,  43; 
1050-1305  A.  D.,  103;  Ref- 
ormation of,  177f;  1789- 
1908,  233. 

Irish  Mission  to  the  Conti- 
nent, 80. 

Jacob,  Henry,  174. 

Jacobite  Church,  76 

James  I,  165,  170. 

James  II,   172f. 

James  V,  163. 

Jansen,  Cornelius,  188. 

Jansenism,  19  6f. 

Jeremiah  II,   189. 

Jerome,  45. 

Jesuit  Order,  150. 

Jesuits,  182ff,  197f. 

Jewish  Heresies  (100-323  A. 
D.),  32. 

John  of  England,  98,  101. 

John  XXII,  121,   124f. 

Johnson,  Francis,  174. 

Judson,   Adoniram,    239. 

Judaistic  Controversy,  8. 

Julian,  41. 

Justinian  I,  42. 

Knights  of  St.  John,  107. 

Knights  Templars,   107. 

Knox,  John,  163ff. 

Lateran  Council,  101. 

Laud,  Wm.,  17 Of. 

LeFevre,  Jacques,  157. 

Legislative  Assembly,  219. 

Leo  XIII,  222. 

Leo  the  Isaurian,  74. 

Literary  attacks  on  Christi- 
anity (100-323  A.  D.),  17f. 

Literature:  1-100  A.  D.,  10; 
100-323  A.  D.,  35f ;  323-600 
A.  D.,  67f;  600-850  A.  D., 
87f;  and  Learning  (1050- 
1305),  119f;  1648-1789  A. 
D.,  192 ;  and  Religious 
Thought,  Catholic  (1648- 
1789),  198. 

Lombards:  40,  77f ;  cities,  95. 

Lower  Clergy  (600-850  A. 
D.),  86. 

Louis  of  Bavaria,  124f. 

Louis  the  Pious,  78. 

Louis  VII,  105. 


262 


A  Guide  to  the  Study 


Louis  IX,  107. 

"Low  Church  Party,"  231. 

Loyola,  Ignatius,  182. 

Lucar,  Cyril,  190. 

Lutkens,  201. 

Luther,  Life  of,  14 Of. 

Lutheran  Reformation : 
1517-1648  A.  D.,  140ff; 
1648-1789  A.  D.,  198ff. 

Lutherans  in  U.  S.  (Revolu- 
tion to  1908),  242. 

Manichaeism,  35. 

Mariolatry,  52f,  114. 

Martin  V,  125. 

Maronites,  76. 

Martel,  Charles,  77. 

Mary  of  England,  168f. 

Mary  of  Guise,  163ff. 

Mathys,  Jan.,  180. 

Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  185f. 

Maximilian  II,   148. 

Mediating  School,  224f. 

Medici  Family,   122. 

Medici,  Catherine  de.,  158f£. 

Mendicant  Orders,   103f. 

Mennonites,  180. 

Methodism,  193,  208f. 

Methodists:  English  (1789- 
1908),  233;  in  U.  S.  (Revo- 
lution to  1908),  241f. 

Methodius,  73. 

Metropolitans,  2  If. 

Meyer,  Sebastian,  152. 

Middle  Ages,  69ff. 

Missionary  Union,   239. 

Missions:  100-323  A.  D.,  13ff; 
323-600  A.  D.,  43;  600-850 
A.  D.,  79;  850-1050  A.  D., 
92;  1050-1305  A.  D.,  108; 
1517-1648  A.  D.,  138;  Bap- 
tist, in  U.  S.  (Revolution 
to  1908),  240;  Catholic 
(1517-1648  A.  D.)f  187f; 
Catholic  (1648-1789  A.  D.), 
195f;  Catholic  (1789-1908), 
222;  Protestant  (1648-1789 
A.  D.),  193;  Eastern  (600- 
1517  A.  D.),  73;  English 
1789-1908),  230,  231f; 
Lutheran  (1648-1789  A. 
D.),  200f;  General  (1789- 
1908),  245f. 

Modal  Monarchianism,  31. 

Modern  Period,  136ff. 

Mohammedanism  (600-151  < 
A.  D.),  71f. 

Molino,  Louis,  188. 

Monasticism:  323-600  A.  D., 
65f;  600-850  A.  D.,  83f; 
1050-1350  A.  D.,  103f. 

Mongols,  Mission  to  (1050- 
1305),  108. 

Monks   (600-850  A.  D.),  86. 

M  o  n  o  t  h  e  lite  Controversy, 
61f. 


Monophysite  Churches,    76. 

Monophysitism,  59ff. 

Montanism,   33. 

Morals:  1-100  A.  D.,  9;  100- 
323  A.  D.,  26;  323-600  A. 
D.  64f;  1305-1517  A.  D. 
129f. 

Mormons,   242f. 

Munster  Kingdom,  180. 

Miinzer,  180. 

Murton,  175. 

Music  (1648-1789),  193. 

National,  or  Constituent, 
Assembly,  218f;  Conven- 
tion, 219. 

Napoleon,  220f. 

Neo-Platonism,   13. 

Nestorianism,  58f. 

Nestorians  of  Persia,   75f. 

Netherlands  (Calv.  Ref.), 
159ff. 

New  Jerusalem  Church,  201. 

Nicholas  I,   91. 

Nonjurors,   207. 

Normans  (1050-1305  A.  D.), 
96. 

Northmen  (850-1050  A.  D.), 
88. 

Novatianism,  34. 

Norway    (Luth.    Ref.),   147. 

CEcolampadius,  153. 

Origenistic  Controversy,    56. 

Ordinances:  100-323  A.  D., 
22f;  323-600  A.  D.,  48ff; 
Calv.  Ref.,  154;  Zwing. 
Ref.,  151. 

Organization:  1517-1648  A. 
D.,  138;  Baptist  in  U.  S., 
239;  Methodists  in  U.  S., 
242. 

Opposition     to     Christianity 

100-323   A.  D.,   15. 
^-  Orthodox         (Dutch         "Re- 
formed"), 204. 

Otto  I,  89. 

Otto  the  Great,  91. 

Papacy:  600-850  A.  D.,  82f; 
850-1050  A.  D.,  91;  1050- 
1305  A.  D.,  98. 

Particular  Baptists,   175f. 

Patriarchate  of  Constantino- 
ple, 244. 

Patrick,  43. 

Peace  of  Augsburg,  144. 

Peace  of  Dessidents,  148. 

Peace  of  Luneville,  220. 

Peace  of  Nuremberg,  143. 

Pelagian  Controversy,  62fl*. 

Penance,  115. 

Pepin  the  Middle,   77. 

Pepin  the   Short,    77f. 

Persecution:  100-323  A.  D., 
16f;  1305-1517  A.  D.,  129. 

Persia:  323-600  A.  D.,  43f; 
1050-1305  A.  D.,108. 


of  Church  History. 


263 


Petersen,  Olaf  and  Lars,  145. 
Peter  the  Hermit,  105. 
Peter  the  Lombard,  111. 
Petrobrusians,  117. 
Philadelphia    Confession    of 

Faith,   213. 

Philip  II,  97,  106,  160f. 
Philosophy:    1648-1789  A.  D., 

191f;    and    Science    (1789- 

1908),  217. 
Pietism,  199f. 
Pius  IX,  221. 
Pius  X,  222. 
Planting      and      Spread      of 

Christianity,  6. 
Poland  (Luth.  Ref.),  147. 
Political     Conditions      (100- 

323  A.  D.),  11. 
Political  History:  600-850  A. 

D.,    76ff;    850-1050    A.    D., 

88f;  1050-1305  A.  D.,  94f£; 

1305-1517      A.      D.,      120f; 

Eastern  (Mid.  Ages),  71. 
Polity    (Calv.   Ref.),   154. 
Political      Progress:       1648- 

1789,191;    1789-1908,    214f. 
Predestination    Controversy, 

84f. 

Premonstratensians,  103f. 
Presbyterians:     in    America, 

212,  237f;  in  England,  232. 
Protestant       Episcopal 

Church,    211,    237. 
Protestants  in  America,  210. 
Provincial  Synods,  19. 
Prussia  (Luth.  Ref.),  147. 
Pseudo-Isidorian     Decretals, 

83. 

Puritan  Party,  169. 
Quakers,  176f,  233. 
Quietism,  197. 
Raikes,  Robert,  230. 
Rationalism,    190f,    224. 
Reform  atory  Movements, 

133. 

Reformation,  136ff. 
Regular  Baptists,  213. 
Religious    Activity    (100-323 

A.  D.),  27. 
Religious  Condition  (100-323 

A.  D.),  12. 
Religious     Progress      (1789- 

1908),   215f. 
"Relief  Church,"  205. 
Remonstrants,  204. 
Renaissance,    131ff;    Benefits 

of  to  Religion,  133. 
Reuchlin,   132. 
Revocation     of     Edicts     of 

Nismes  and  Nantes,   203. 
Rice,  Luther,  239. 
"Rights  of  Regalia,"   194. 
Roman  Church,  The,  22. 
Russians,    Christianizing   of 

the,  73. 


Russian    Orthodox    Church, 

244f. 

St.   Francis,    lllf. 
Saint  Worship,  53,  114. 
Savonarola,  135. 
Savoy  Declaration,  174. 
Saxons    (600-850   A.   D.),   81. 
Scandinavia  (600-850  A.  D.), 

81f.      Countries:     850-1050 

A.  D.,   92;  1305-1517  A.  D., 

124;      Luth.      Ref.,      145ff; 

1789-1908,    228f. 
Schisms  (100-323  A.  D.),  33. 
Schism,  The  Great,  125f. 
Schmalkald  League,  143. 
Schmalkald  War,  144. 
Scholasticism,  109. 
Scotland:    323-600  A.  D.,  43; 

Calv.    Ref.     (1517-1648    A. 

D.),  163ff;  1648-1789  A.  D., 

204f;   1789-1908,  229. 
Scotus,  Duns,  127. 
"Secession   Church,"   205. 
Sects   (1050-1305  A.  D.),  116. 
Separate  Baptists,  213. 
"Separates"  ("New  Lights"), 

212. 

Sigismund  III,   148. 
Signs   and   Helps   to   a  New 

Age,   130f. 
Sins   and   their   Forgiveness 

(100-323   A.   D.),   28. 
Slavs  (850-1050  A.  D.),  88. 
Smith,  Joseph,  242. 
Smyth,  John,  174f. 
Social  and  Economical  Prog- 
ress  (1789-1908),  216f. 
Social   Conditions:    1-100   A. 

D.,   10;   100-323   A.   D.,    12. 
Social  Life    (100-323  A.  D.), 

26f. 

Socinianism,  236. 
"Solemn    League   and   Cove- 
nant," 171. 
Spain:      850-1050    A.    D.,    90; 

1050-1305  A.  D.,  97;  Luth. 

Ref.,     150;    and    Portugal 

(1789-1908),   226. 
Spanish      Peninsula      (1305- 

1517  A.  D.),  123. 
Spener,  P.  J.,  199. 
Spilsbury,  John,  175f. 
Subordination  (Logos  Chris- 

tology),  31. 
Supernaturalism,  224. 
Sweden:     Luth.    Ref.    (1517- 

1648    A.    D.),    145f;    1789- 

1908,    229. 
Swiss-Moravian  Anabaptists, 

179f. 
Swiss  "Reformed"  churches, 

202. 

Switzerland,  French,  Re- 
form of,  155;  1789-1908, 
227f. 


264 


A  Guide  to  the  Study 


Synod  of  Dort,  162. 

Synod  of  the  Desert,   203. 

Taborites,  134f. 

Tausen,  Hans,  146. 

Tauler,  John,  127. 

Teutonic  Order,   107f. 

Thirty  Years  War,  148,185ff. 

Theodoric  the  Great,  40. 

Theodosius,  42. 

Theology:  600-850  A.  D., 
84f,  87f;  1050-1305  A.  D., 
109ff;  1305-1517  A.  D.,  127; 
1517-1648  A.  D.,  138f ;  Cal- 
vinistic,  154;  Catholic 
1517-1648  A.  D.),  188f; 
Rise  of,  30f;  Development 
of  (323-600  A.  D.),  54ff. 

Tractarian   Movement,    231. 

Trajan's  Regulations,  16. 

Transubstantiation  Contro- 
versy, 110. 

Treaty  of  Westphalia,  193. 

Tridentine  Creed,  182. 

T  r  i  n  i  t  a  rian  Controversy, 
54ff. 

Toleration,  Act  of,   172. 

Turks,  Ottoman,  121. 

Ulfilas,  44f. 

Uniformity,  Act  of,  169. 

Unitarians,  236. 

United  Brethren,  201. 

"United  Secession  Church," 
205. 

United  States  (Revolution 
to  1908),  234ff. 

United  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Scotland,  229. 

Universalism,  236. 

Universities  (1050-1305  A. 
D.),  119f. 


Urban  II,  105. 

Urban  VI,  125. 

Vandals,  39. 

Vatican  Council,  222. 

Vernacular  Literature,  130f. 

Von  Weltz,  Baron  Justinian, 
200. 

Waldenses,  117f. 

Waldo,  Peter,  117f. 

Wars  of  the  Roses,  123. 

Wesley,  John  and  Charles, 
208f. 

Western  Christianity,  76ff. 

Western  Empire,  38. 

West  Goths,  38f. 

"Westminster  Assembly," 
171. 

Whitefield,  George,  208f. 

William  of  Orange,  161. 

Williams,  Roger,  212f. 

William  the  Conqueror,  97f. 

Willibrod,  80f. 

Wishart,  George,  163. 

World  into  which  the  Gos- 
pel Came,  1. 

Worms,  Concordat  of,  94. 

Worship:  1-100  A.  D.,  9,  25; 
100-323  A.  D.,  25f ;  323-600 
A.  D.,  50ff;  600-850  A.  D., 
85f;  1050-1305  A.  D.,  113ff; 
1305-1517  A.  D.,  128;  1517- 
1648  A.  D.,  139;  Calv.  Ref., 
154f;  Zwing.  Ref.,  151. 

Wycliffe,  133. 

Zinzendorf,  201. 

Zwinglian  Reformation, 
151fC. 

Zwingli,  152. 


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